Colom, R., Stein, J. L., Rajagopalan, P., Martinez, K., Hermel, D., Wang, Y., & Thompson, P. M. (2013). Hippocampal structure and human cognition: Key role of spatial processing and evidence supporting the efficiency hypothesis in females. Intelligence, 41(2), 129–140. doi: 10.1016/j.intell.2013.01.002 Editor's note: The Economist has invited two athletes to offer their views on transgender women athletes competing in women’s sports at the Olympics. Veronica Ivy, a trans cycling champion, is in favour; Chelsea Mitchell, an American collegiate runner, is against. Begg, C. B., & Mazumdar, M. (1994). Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. Biometrics, 50, 1088–1101. doi: 10.2307/2533446 As an additional source of information, the most recently developed approach to an examination of the publication bias also was considered. Specifically, Ioannidis and Trikalinos ( 2007) proposed a test based on the rationale that a publication bias in a set of effect sizes should produce an excess of observed positive findings when compared to what is expected from the power of individual studies. As a conservative measure, Ioannidis and Trikalinos recommended use of 0.10 as the significance level for such test to reduce the risk of Type II errors. A number of exclusion criteria were also defined. Specifically, data based on special populations were not included. For example, studies that examined individuals with brain damage were not included, although when such studies reported on a control group that met the other criteria, the control group data were included. However, control groups that were sex-matched to a clinical group were excluded as they did not form random samples. Finally, to avoid duplication, when data from the same sample were reported in multiple articles, only the first report on these data was included.

Bouffard, J., Yang, C., Begon, M. & Côté, J. Sex differences in kinematic adaptations to muscle fatigue induced by repetitive upper limb movements. Biol. Sex Differ. 9, 17 (2018). The moderator analyses discussed so far all have one thing in common: When location for memory tasks are removed from the data set, their influence on accounted variance in effect sizes for the overall sample is affected. Specifically, the effect of age coded categorically became significant, whereas the effect of task and testing medium became nonsignificant. These findings suggest that, in one sense, memory for location tasks are outliers in the present data set, and they essentially do not belong with other visual-spatial memory tasks when considering sex differences. From the present findings with location memory tasks and the results reported by Voyer et al. ( 2007), it appears that females have the advantage over males in memory for location. However, as soon as another component is added, whether it is sequencing, remembering a pattern, a series of location, etc., then males have the advantage. As suggested earlier, empirical studies examining different tasks and their components are needed to explain the mechanism underlying this dissociation in terms of the direction of sex differences. Year of publication as a moderator Rohr, L. E. Gender-specific movement strategies using a computer-pointing task. J. Mot. Behav. 38, 431–437 (2006). Gursoy, R. Sex differences in relations of muscle power, lung function, and reaction time in athletes. Percept. Mot. Skills 110, 714–720 (2010).Craik, K. J. W. Theory of the human operator in control systems: The operator as an engineering system. Br. J. Psychol. Gen. Sect. 38, 56–61 (1947). Considering our concerns that the inclusion of sex or gender in the search terms might result in a sample biased toward studies showing sex differences, we made additional efforts to obtain unpublished research. Specifically, theses and dissertations were considered as a possible source of unpublished material. Furthermore, a posting requesting unpublished research was sent to the mailing list of the Spatial Learning Network (SILC) and of the Canadian Society for Brain, Behavior, and Cognitive Science (CSBBCS). As a result of these efforts, 18 effect sizes from unpublished research (16 theses, 2 unpublished papers) were coded into the data sample (from a total of 182 effect sizes). Therefore, the final data set included a small number of effect sizes drawn from unpublished work. Selection criteria Examination of the combined effect size was performed by computing a null model where the test of significance for the intercept is examined (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002). Results of this analysis revealed a mean estimated d of 0.155 (95 % confidence interval (CI) = 0.087-0.223), indicating that males significantly outperformed females on visual-spatial working memory tasks, t(97) = 4.54, p< 0.001.

Miller, D. I. & Halpern, D. F. The new science of cognitive sex differences. Trends Cogn. Sci. 18, 37–45 (2014). Johnson, J. (2013). Designing with the mind in mind: Simple guide to understanding user interface design guidelines (2nd ed.). New York: Elsevier. Accordingly, we examined publication bias with the method proposed by Ioannidis and Trikalinos ( 2007). As a starting point, we defined a positive finding as a result showing a male advantage, because it would support the potentially pervasive expectations from reviewers and editors leading to a publication bias. Having established this component, we then determined whether the distribution of effect sizes was asymmetrically biased toward those reflecting a male advantage compared with what would be expected by chance under null hypothesis statistical testing. This approach relies exclusively on the logic of hypothesis testing and makes no further assumption as is required, for example, in the commonly used Egger’s test (Egger, Davey Smith, Schneider, & Minder, 1997). In fact, unlike the Egger's test, the Ioannidis and Trikalinos method is not tied to a specific meta-analytic model (e.g., fixed or random effect model). Use of this approach in the overall data set suggests that the number of positive findings is as expected from the power of retrieved studies, reflecting no significant publication bias (Observed = 47, Expected = 43.42, χ 2 = 0.39, p = 0.53).Miller, D. I., & Halpern, D. F. (2013). Can spatial training improve long-term outcomes for gifted STEM undergraduates?. Learning and Individual Differences, 26, 141–152. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2012.03.012 Almela, M., van der Meij, L., Hidalgo, V., Villada, C., & Salvador, A. (2012). The cortisol awakening response and memory performance in older men and women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(12), 1929–1940. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.04.009 Kuhn, J., & Holling, H. (2014). Number sense or working memory? The effect of two computer based trainings on mathematical skills in elementary school. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 10(2), 59–67. doi: 10.5709/acp-0157-2 Girard, T.A., Christensen, B.K., & Rizvi, S. (2010). Visual-spatial episodic memory in Schizophrenia: A multiple systems framework. Neuropsychology, 24(3), 368–378. doi: 10.1037/a0018313 Because location seems to be a central component of so many tasks, it is important to distinguish the studies sampled here from the ones that were sampled by Voyer, Postma, Brake, and Imperato-McGinley ( 2007) in their meta-analysis of sex differences in object location memory. Their analysis focused mostly on tasks similar to the one proposed by Silverman and Eals ( 1992), in which a large array of objects is memorized and, after an intervening object identity memory task, participants are tasked to identify moved and unmoved objects. Essentially, the time interval between encoding and retrieval is typically too long and the number of objects is too numerous to fit within the limits of working memory (Cowan, 2008). Therefore, the location tasks included in the present analysis are distinct from the type of task that was discussed by Voyer et al. ( 2007). Age of participants

Increase government funding of high-quality day-care options to enable parents, and especially mothers, to work outside the home if they so desire, and to do so without fear that their finances or their children’s well-being will be compromised. Pass federal and state legislation banning employment discrimination based on sexual orientation and allowing same-sex couples to marry and enjoy all the rights, responsibilities, and benefits of heterosexual married couples. Hartley, D. E., Elsabagh, S., & File, S. E. (2004). Binge drinking and sex: Effects on mood and cognitive function in healthy young volunteers. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 78(3), 611–619. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2004.04.027

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van Donkelaar, P. & Lee, R. G. Interactions between the eye and hand motor systems: Disruptions due to cerebellar dysfunction. J. Neurophysiol. 72, 1674–1685 (1994). As the name suggests, women don’t have the MA → their SMV, standing, and “value” in society are largely dependant on their looks.