Wernham, Richard Bruce. Before the Armada: the growth of English foreign policy, 1485–1588 (1966); a standard history of foreign policy

Lady Margaret remained in England and remarried, living quietly while advancing the Lancastrian (and her son's) cause. Capitalizing on the growing unpopularity of Richard III (King of England from 1483), she was able to forge an alliance with discontented Yorkists in support of her son. Two years after Richard III was crowned, Henry and Jasper sailed from the mouth of the Seine to the Milford Haven Waterway and defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485. [9] Upon this victory, Henry Tudor proclaimed himself King Henry VII. McLaren, Anne N. Political Culture in the Reign of Elizabeth I: queen and commonwealth 1558–1585 (Cambridge University Press, 1999). Hanson, Marilee. https://englishhistory.net/tudor/tudor-population-figures-facts/ "Tudor Population Figures & Facts", English History, February 8, 2015 Elizabeth's final two decades saw mounting problems that were left for the Stuarts to solve after 1603. John Cramsie, in reviewing the recent scholarship in 2003, argues:Paul E. J. Hammer, Elizabeth's wars: war, government and society in Tudor England, 1544–1604 (2003). In England and Wales, the Tudor period occurred between 1485 and 1603, and included the Elizabethan period during the reign of ElizabethI (1558–1603). The Tudor period coincides with the dynasty of the House of Tudor in England, which began with the reign of HenryVII. Historian John Guy (1988) argued that "England was economically healthier, more expansive, and more optimistic under the Tudors" than at any time since the Roman occupation. [1] Population and economy [ edit ] Old London Bridge in 1543 a b c Pearse, Malpas (1969). Stuart London. Internet Archive. London, Macdonald. pp.8–9. ISBN 978-0-356-02566-7.

David Loades, "The reign of Edward VI: An historiographical survey", Historian 67#1 (2000): 22+ online. The monarch had much more direct power to pass bills and change laws than today. Most Tudor monarchs summoned Parliament once a year, often to the Palace of Westminster, although Elizabeth I only summoned them ten times over her 45-year reign. [63] Owen Tudor was one of the bodyguards for the queen dowager Catherine of Valois, whose husband, Henry V, had died in 1422. Evidence suggests that the two were secretly married in 1428. Two sons born of the marriage, Edmund and Jasper, were among the most loyal supporters of the House of Lancaster in its struggle against the House of York. Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII (21 vols, 1862–1932) most volumes are online hereShapiro, James (15 March 2016). "How were Jews regarded in 16th-century England?". Discovering Literature: Shakespeare & Renaissance. British Library . Retrieved 15 September 2023. In 1535, an officially sanctioned English Bible was published. In 1539, six copies of the Great Bible were placed in St. Paul's Cathedral where anyone could read them or read them aloud to others. [80] Churches were also physically reformed, with jewels, rood lofts and statues of saints being removed. Sometimes these were taken down by officials, but in other churches, such as St. Margaret Pattens, reformist mobs destroyed these objects. [81] Under Edward VI, Protestant reforms were made such as the abolition of chantry chapels and the removal of saints' images and stained glass. [26] Haigh, Christopher. "The recent historiography of the English Reformation." Historical Journal 25.4 (1982): 995–1007. In 1553, Edward VI named his Protestant cousin Lady Jane Grey as his successor rather than his Catholic half-sister Mary. After his death, Mary marched on London with an army to meet the forces of the Duke of Northumberland in Shoreditch. Londoners refused to support Northumberland, who was imprisoned along with Jane and her husband, Guildford Dudley. All were later executed for treason. [35] In 1579, Elizabeth was on the royal barge at Greenwich when a bullet hit her helmsman. She gave him her scarf and told him to be glad, as he stopped a bullet meant for her. A man called Thomas Appletree confessed to the crime, saying that he had been showing off to some friends by firing randomly and hadn't meant to hit the royal barge. He was sentenced to be hanged close to the scene of his crime, and was given a royal reprieve at the last moment. [124]

Livery companies also founded their own schools, such as the Mercers' School in Old Jewry in 1541, [30] and the Merchant Taylors' School on Suffolk Lane in 1561. [108] Historians agree that the great theme of Tudor history was the Reformation, the transformation of England from Catholicism to Protestantism. The main events, constitutional changes, and players at the national level have long been known, and the major controversies about them largely resolved. Historians until the late 20th century thought that the causes were a widespread dissatisfaction or even disgust with the evils, corruptions, failures, and contradictions of the established religion, setting up an undertone of anti-clericalism that indicated a rightness [ Maybe "ripeness" was intended.] for reform. A secondary influence was the intellectual impact of certain English reformers, such as the long-term impact of John Wycliffe (1328–1384) and his " Lollardy" reform movement, together with a stream of Reformation treatises and pamphlets from Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other reformers on the continent. The interpretation by Geoffrey Elton in 1960 is representative of the orthodox interpretation. He argued that: Main article: Elizabethan era The Procession Picture, c. 1600, showing Elizabeth I borne along by her courtiers

Painting of the Beauchamp Tower where noble prisoners were held at the Tower of London, 1798

Wernham, Richard Bruce. After the Armada: Elizabethan England and the struggle for Western Europe, 1588–1595 (1985) Willis, Deborah. Malevolent nurture: Witch-hunting and maternal power in early modern England (Cornell University Press, 1995).