Ballet developed as a performance-focused art form in France during the reign of Louis XIV, who was passionate about dance. [14] His interest in ballet dancing was politically motivated. He established strict social etiquettes through dancing and turned it into one of the most crucial elements in court social life, effectively holding authority over the nobles and reigning over the state. [15] Louis's initiates led to the refinement and perfection of social dancing among aristocrats as a way to display royalty, further consolidating the art of classical ballet with newly established rules and protocols. [16]

With the printing of books initiated in Venice by Aldus Manutius, an increasing number of works began to be published in the Italian language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance. The source for these works expanded beyond works of theology and towards the pre-Christian eras of Imperial Rome and Ancient Greece. This is not to say that no religious works were published in this period: Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy reflects a distinctly medieval world view. [47] Christianity remained a major influence for artists and authors, with the classics coming into their own as a second primary influence. Dean, Trevor, 'Ferrara and Mantua', in The Italian Renaissance State Link opens in a new window, ed. Andrea Gamberini and Isabella Lazzarini (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 112-131. Ballerina Marie Taglioni in “Zephire et Flore,” c. 1831. (Photo: Wikimedia Commons [Public domain])The 19th century saw the emergence of a style of ballet which would become familiar to modern audiences. The French Revolution caused a shift in tastes—ballet separated from its courtly roots. Skirts shortened and soft dance slippers were introduced, allowing for greater motion. Dancing en pointe was developed by professional female dancers during the first few decades of the century. Among these early pioneers were the Italian dancers Amalia Brugnoli and Marie Taglioni, as well as the French ballerina Fanny Bias of the Paris Opera Ballet company. During the 19th century, the ballerina became the star of the once male-dominated discipline. B.M. Adelson, The Lives of Dwarfs.Their Journey from Public Curiosity Toward Social Liberation. (Rutgers University Press, Piscataway, 2005) Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527), the author of The Prince and prototypical Renaissance man. Detail from a portrait by Santi di Tito.See also: History of Italian Renaissance domes Bramante's Tempietto in San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, 1502 Russian ballet continued development under Soviet rule. There was little talent left in the country after the Revolution, but it was enough to seed a new generation. After stagnation in the 1920s, by the mid-1930s that new generation of dancers and choreographers appeared on the scene. The technical perfection and precision of dance was promoted (and demanded) by Agrippina Vaganova, who had been taught by Petipa and Cecchetti and headed the Vaganova Ballet Academy, the school to prepare dancers for the Kirov Ballet in St. Petersburg/Leningrad. Haskins, Charles H. The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1955. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.02003.0001.001. Petrarch encouraged the study of the Latin classics and carried his copy of Homer about, at a loss to find someone to teach him to read Greek. An essential step in the classic humanist education being propounded by scholars like Pico della Mirandola was the hunting down of lost or forgotten manuscripts that were known only by reputation. These endeavours were greatly aided by the wealth of Italian patricians, merchant-princes and despots, who would spend substantial sums building libraries. Discovering the past had become fashionable and it was a passionate affair pervading the upper reaches of society. I go, said Cyriac of Ancona, I go to awake the dead. As the Greek works were acquired, manuscripts found, libraries and museums formed, the age of the printing press was dawning. The works of Antiquity were translated from Greek and Latin into the contemporary modern languages throughout Europe, finding a receptive middle-class audience, which might be, like Shakespeare, "with little Latin and less Greek". Until the late 14th century, prior to the Medici, Florence's leading family were the House of Albizzi. In 1293 the Ordinances of Justice were enacted which effectively became the constitution of the republic of Florence throughout the Italian Renaissance. [27] The city's numerous luxurious palazzi were becoming surrounded by townhouses, built by the ever prospering merchant class. [28] In 1298, one of the leading banking families of Europe, the Bonsignoris, were bankrupted and so the city of Siena lost her status as the banking centre of Europe to Florence. [29] Portrait of Cosimo de' Medici by Jacopo Pontormo (ca. 1518-1520)

Osborne, Roger (2008-01-10). Civilization: A New History of the Western World. Random House (published 2008). p.183. ISBN 9780099526063 . Retrieved 2013-11-25. The Ducal Palace is a beautiful piece of Renaissance architecture by Luciano Laurana. The western facade has a loggia flanked with twin turrets. This was where the duke could step out and show himself to his minions. Ballet is a formalized form of dance with its origins in the Italian Renaissance courts of 15th and 16th centuries. Ballet spread from Italy to France with the help of Catherine de' Medici, where ballet developed even further under her aristocratic influence. An early example of Catherine's development of ballet is through 'Le Paradis d' Amour', a piece of work presented at the wedding of her daughter Marguerite de Valois to Henry of Navarre. Aristocratic money was responsible for the initial stages of development in 'court ballet', as it was royal money that dictated the ideas, literature and music used in ballets that were created to primarily entertain the aristocrats of the time. The first formal 'court ballet' ever recognized was staged in 1573, 'Ballet des Polonais'. In true form of royal entertainment, 'Ballet des Polonais' was commissioned by Catherine de' Medici to honor the Polish ambassadors who were visiting Paris upon the accession of Henry of Anjou to the throne of Poland. In 1581, Catherine de' Medici commissioned another court ballet, Ballet Comique de la Reine, however it was her compatriot, Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx, who organized the ballet. Catherine de' Medici and Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx were responsible for presenting the first court ballet ever to apply the principles of Baif's Academie, by integrating poetry, dance, music and set design to convey a unified dramatic storyline. Moreover, the early organization and development of 'court ballet' was funded by, influenced by and produced by the aristocrats of the time, fulfilling both their personal entertainment and political propaganda needs. Lopez, Robert Sabatino. The Three Ages of the Italian Renaissance. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1970. Cossar, Roisin (2002). Miller, Maureen (ed.). "Christianity and Power in Medieval Italy". Method & Theory in the Study of Religion. 14 (3/4): 415–419. doi: 10.1163/157006802320909783. ISSN 0943-3058. JSTOR 23550005.Development of capitalism, banking, merchantilism and accounting: beginning of the European Great Divergence

At sea, Italian city-states sent many fleets out to do battle. The main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict, the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more powerful adversary, and with the decline of Genoese power during the 15th century Venice became pre-eminent on the seas. In response to threats from the landward side, from the early 15th century Venice developed an increased interest in controlling the terrafirma as the Venetian Renaissance opened. Jensen 1992, p. 97; see also Andrew B. Appleby's "Epidemics and Famine in the Little Ice Age." Journal of Interdisciplinary History. Vol. 10 No. 4. This spread north was also representative of a larger trend. No longer was the Mediterranean Europe's most important trade route. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, and from that date the primary route of goods from the Orient was through the Atlantic ports of Lisbon, Seville, Nantes, Bristol, and London. Bayer, A., ed. (2008). Art and love in Renaissance Italy. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780300124118.

Working for the man every night and day

The Romantic movement in art, literature, and theatre was a reaction against formal constraints and the mechanics of industrialization.[22] The zeitgeist led choreographers to compose romantic ballets that appeared light, airy and free that would act as a contrast to the spread of reductionist science through many aspects of daily life that had, in the words of Edgar Allan Poe, "driven the hamadryad from the woods". These "unreal" ballets portrayed women as fragile unearthly beings, ethereal creatures who could be lifted effortlessly and almost seemed to float in the air. Ballerinas began to wear costumes with pastel, flowing skirts that bared the shins. The stories revolved around uncanny, folkloric spirits. An example of one such romantic ballet is La Sylphide, one of the oldest romantic ballets still performed today. Some of the leading dancers of the time who performed throughout Europe were Louis Dupré, Charles Le Picque with Anna Binetti, Gaetano Vestris, and Jean-Georges Noverre. [33] 19th century [ edit ] Polish ballet performers at the 1827 Venice Carnival. The dancer on the left is performing "en travestie" as a woman taking the man's role.