Strevens M (2008) Depth: An Account of Scientific Explanation. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA

The elephant's trunk might even have started out as a snorkel in a semi-aquatic ancestor. This seems more plausible when you consider that elephants’ closest living relatives are the fully-aquatic manatees and dugongs.Kline MA (2015) How to learn about teaching: An evolutionary framework for the study of teaching behavior in humans and other animals. Behav Brain Sci. e31. Uniqueness has received little attention in recent philosophy of science. This is surprising given its important role in the life sciences. There it is often claimed that events, traits, or lineages are unique; for example, that evolutionary events are contingent (McConwell 2019, Currie 2018), irreversible (Maynard-Smith & Szathmary, 1995) or idiosyncratic (Wong 2019); that human beings evolve under unique cultural circumstances (Henrich 2015); and that lineages bear unique, novel traits (Wagner 2014). The metaphysics of evolutionary kinds further suggests an important role for uniqueness. The dominant view understands such kinds as individuals: particular trajectories deserving of narrative explanation (Hull 1976).

Kipling illustrated the original editions of the Just So Stories. [5] Later illustrators of the book include Joseph M. Gleeson. [6] Editions [ edit ] a b Karlin, Daniel (23 December 2015). "How the Stories Got Their Name: Kipling and the Origins of the 'Just-So' Stories". Oxford University Press . Retrieved 27 October 2016. urn:lcp:howelephantgotit0000rich:epub:8ea4189d-6f90-49cf-98c5-37d2b0b3a880 Foldoutcount 0 Identifier howelephantgotit0000rich Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t5s877b1k Invoice 1652 Isbn 0805066993 Lccn 2002007216 Ocr tesseract 5.0.0-alpha-20201231-10-g1236 Ocr_detected_lang en Ocr_detected_lang_conf 1.0000 Ocr_detected_script Latin Ocr_detected_script_conf 0.9014 Ocr_module_version 0.0.13 Ocr_parameters -l eng Old_pallet IA-NS-0000798 Openlibrary_editionThornton A (2008) Variation in contributions to teaching by meerkats. Proceedings Royal Soc b: Biol Sci 275(1644):1745–1751 Birch J (2021) Toolmaking and the Origin of Normative Cognition. Biol Philos. 36(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-020-09777-9

Consider polyploidy—whole genome duplication—in plants. Polyploidy can occur via a number of routes but tends to bring a common syndrome of effects: plants tend to grow more slowly, produce larger seeds, flower later and live longer. Among angiosperms, there are also often exaggerated changes to the size and shape of reproductive organs as well as increased production of alkaloid chemicals—shifting the relationship between plants and their pollinators and pests (Levin 1983). The effects of polyploidization can be dramatic, should one therefore treat them as unique? Churchland PM (1985) The ontological status of observables: In praise of the superempirical virtues. Images sci. 35–47.

The elephant’s child waited three days for his trunk to shrink, but it never grew any shorter, and, besides, it made him squint. Elephants have an incredible sense of smell, able to detect food that is several miles away. Their nostrils are located at the tip of their trunk and contain more smell receptors than any other mammal – including dogs. 🐘 Communication

We have no extant relatives which are suspected of sharing similar selective regimes and that can therefore be used to test the fitness consequences of the supposed adaptations. If all or most of the estimated dozen or so extinct hominid species (comprising, perhaps two or three genera) still existed, phylogenetic studies would certainly be easier and might well be useful for distinguishing between competing hypotheses about the spread and maintenance of phenotypic traits of interest. Unfortunately for testing adaptive hypotheses in humans, all the other hominids are extinct and so comparisons between the groups, with special attention to the fitness consequences of differences in key traits, are impossible (Kaplan 2002, 300). Lewontin RC (1998) The evolution of cognition: Questions we will never answer. In: Scarborough D, Sternberg S (eds) An invitation to cognitive science, Vol 4: Methods, models and conceptual issues. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 106–132 Best elephant gifts: 7 elephant-themed present ideas you can’t resist So how did the elephant get its trunk? Ereshefsky M, Turner D (2019) Historicity and explanation. Stud Hist Philos Sci Part A. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2019.02.002Hoppitt WJE, Brown GR, Kendal R, Kendal L, Thornton A, Webster MM, Laland KN (2008) Lessons from animal teaching. Trends Ecol Evol 23(9):486–493