Perioeci (the "dwellers nearby"), who were free non-citizens. They were generally merchants, craftsmen and sailors, and served as light infantry and auxiliary on campaigns. [9]

From a strategic point of view, by defending Thermopylae, the Greeks were making the best possible use of their forces. [78] As long as they could prevent a further Persian advance into Greece, they had no need to seek a decisive battle and could, thus, remain on the defensive. Moreover, by defending two constricted passages (Thermopylae and Artemisium), the Greeks' inferior numbers became less of a factor. [78] Conversely, for the Persians the problem of supplying such a large army meant they could not remain in the same place for very long. [79] The Persians, therefore, had to retreat or advance, and advancing required forcing the pass of Thermopylae. [79] According to Herodotus and Diodorus, the king, having taken the measure of the enemy, threw his best troops into a second assault the same day, the Immortals, an elite corps of 10,000 men. [96] [98] However, the Immortals fared no better than the Medes, and failed to make any headway against the Greeks. [98] The Spartans reportedly used a tactic of feigning retreat, and then turning and killing the enemy troops when they ran after them. [98] Second day [ edit ] The flank exposed by Ephialtes a b c Ziogas, Ioannis (9 November 2014). "Sparse Spartan Verse: Filling Gaps in the Thermopylae Epigram". Ramus. Aureal Publications. 43 (2): 115–133. doi: 10.1017/rmu.2014.10. hdl: 1885/13680. S2CID 109914629. Archived from the original on 25 July 2022 . Retrieved 10 October 2014. Militarily, the major lesson of both Plataea and Mycale (since both were fought on land) was to re-emphasise the superiority of the hoplite over the more lightly armed Persian infantry, as had first been demonstrated at Marathon. [106] Taking on this lesson, after the Greco-Persian Wars the Persian empire started recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries. [112] One such mercenary expedition, the " Anabasis of the 10,000" as narrated by Xenophon, further proved to the Greeks that the Persians were militarily vulnerable even well within their own territory, and paved the way for the destruction of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great some decades later.

The Sacred Band

Matthews, Rupert (2006). The Battle of Thermopylae: A Campaign in Context. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 1-86227-325-1. Morris, Ian Macgregor (2000). "To Make a New Thermopylae: Hellenism, Greek Liberation, and the Battle of Thermopylae". Greece & Rome. 47 (2): 211–230. doi: 10.1093/gr/47.2.211. Main articles: Battle of Mycale and Second Persian invasion of Greece Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting on an ancient kylix. Fifth century BC

Battle of Thermopylae" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 September 2020 . Retrieved 1 August 2019. Herodotus, The Histories, Book 8, chapter 26, section 1". Perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 13 September 2014 . Retrieved 26 November 2014. The fleet was commanded by navarchs, who were appointed for a strictly one-year term, and apparently could not be reappointed. The admirals were subordinated to the vice-admiral, called epistoleus. This position was seemingly independent of the one-year term clause because it was used in 405 BC to give Lysander command of the fleet after he was already an admiral for a couple years. [ citation needed] Wars and battles [ edit ] Messenian Wars [ edit ] Dates

4th century BC Greece

Campbell, Duncan B (2012). Spartan Warrior (Warrior Series #163). Osprey Publications. ISBN 978-1-84908-700-1. Spartan ascendancy did not last long. By the end of the 5th century BC, Sparta had suffered severe casualties in the Peloponnesian Wars, and its conservative and narrow mentality alienated many of its former allies. At the same time, its military class – the Spartiate caste – was in decline for several reasons: The Battle of Plataea was the final land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place in 479 BC near the city of Plataea in Boeotia, and was fought between an alliance of the Greek city-states (including Sparta, Athens, Corinth and Megara), and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I (allied with Greece's Boeotians, Thessalians, and Macedonians). A further complication is that a certain proportion of the Allied manpower was needed to man the fleet, which amounted to at least 110 triremes, and thus approximately 22,000 men. [51] Since the Battle of Mycale was fought at least near-simultaneously with the Battle of Plataea, then this was a pool of manpower which could not have contributed to Plataea, and further reduces the likelihood that 110,000 Greeks assembled before Plataea. [52] During the Peloponnesian War, battle engagements became more fluid, light troops became increasingly used, and tactics evolved to meet them. However, in direct confrontations between the two opposing phalanxes, stamina and "pushing ability" were what counted. [31] It was only when the Thebans, under Epaminondas, increased the depth of a part of their formation at the Battle of Leuctra that caused the Spartan phalanx formation to break.