The construction of Maktab schools, where youth were taught the Quran and Islamic law such as the Fatawa 'Alamgiri in their indigenous languages. Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population, [147] while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era. [151] By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871. [152] Schmidt, Karl J. (2015). An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-47681-8.

The Culture and Politics of Persian in Precolonial Hindustan", Literary Cultures in History, University of California Press, pp.158–167, 2019, doi: 10.1525/9780520926738-007, ISBN 978-0-520-92673-8, S2CID 226770775, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 26 July 2021However, by this time Lodi's empire was already crumbling, and it was actually the Rajput Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of Rana Sanga of Mewar. He defeated Babur in the Battle of Bayana. [46] However, in the decisive Battle of Khanwa which was fought near Agra, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga. This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history, as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries. Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 294. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 June 2021. Richards, John F. (1995), The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, p.xv, ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 1 July 2019 Quote: "By the latter date (1720) the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair." Verghese, Ajay; Foa, Roberto Stefan (5 November 2018). "Precolonial Ethnic Violence:The Case of Hindu-Muslim Conflict in India" (PDF). Boston University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 April 2023 . Retrieved 7 April 2023. One of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the lost-wax cast, hollow, seamless, celestial globe. It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589–90 CE), and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any seams. [194]

a b c d Richards, John F. (2003). The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World. University of California Press. pp.27–. ISBN 978-0-520-93935-6. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 9 August 2017. Stein, Burton (2010), A History of India, John Wiley & Sons, pp.159–, ISBN 978-1-4443-2351-1, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote: "The vaunting of such progenitors pointed up the central character of the Mughal regime as a warrior state: it was born in war and it was sustained by war until the eighteenth century, when warfare destroyed it." Robb, Peter (2011). A History of India. Macmillan International Higher Education. p.98. ISBN 978-0-230-34424-2. a b c d e f g h i j Richards, John F. (1995). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2. The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance. [123] The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production. [103]Broadberry, Stephen; Gupta, Bishnupriya (2003). "The Early Modern Great Divergence: Wages, Prices and Economic Development in Europe and Asia 1500–1800" (PDF). p.34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 May 2022 . Retrieved 22 January 2021.

The evolution and refinement of Mughal and Indian architecture and in turn, the development of later Rajput and Sikh palatial architecture. A famous Mughal landmark is the Taj Mahal. Islam: Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)". BBC. 7 September 2009. Archived from the original on 13 August 2018 . Retrieved 13 June 2019. Irfan Habib; Dharma Kumar; Tapan Raychaudhuri (1987). The Cambridge Economic History of India (PDF). Vol.1. Cambridge University Press. p.214. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2017 . Retrieved 5 August 2017.Claude Markovits (2004) [First published 1994 as Histoire de l'Inde Moderne]. A History of Modern India, 1480–1950. Anthem Press. pp.172–173. ISBN 978-1-84331-004-4. The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance was carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps. [95] a b c d e f g h i j Schmidt, Karl J. (2015). An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Routledge. pp.100–. ISBN 978-1-317-47681-8. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 9 August 2017.