a b c Cai, D. W.; Tang, Z. W.; Han, L.; Speller, C. F.; Yang, D. Y. Y.; Ma, X. L.; Cao, J. E.; Zhu, H.; Zhou, H.; etal. (2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the origin of the Chinese domestic horse" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science. 36 (3): 835–842. Bibcode: 2009JArSc..36..835C. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2008.11.006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 June 2011 . Retrieved 17 January 2011.

The spleen and pancreas of a horse are both roughly triangular-shaped. I have described the digestive organs of horse separately here in anatomylearner.com Respiratory organs of horse Lesté-Lasserre, Christa (October 7, 2009). "Mares' Social Bonds Might Enhance Reproductive Success". The Horse. Archived from the original on April 15, 2012 . Retrieved 2009-10-21. Lacey, Marc (2004-05-04). "In Sudan, Militiamen on Horses Uproot a Million". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2009-04-23 . Retrieved 2011-01-04. The pineal gland of horse is ovoid or fusiform in shape and red-brown in color. This pineal gland is located in the midline depression between the thalamus and rostral colliculi.These are the first ways to differentiate horse bones from cow bones. But if you want to identify any specific bone-like scapula or humerus of a horse, then you might know their characteristics features and compare them with other animal’s bones.

Handbuch der Anatomie der Tiere für Künstler(hosted by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections) https://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/collections/science/vetanatimgs/ a b c Pascoe, Elaine (2002-03-12). "How Horses Sleep, Pt. 2– Power Naps". Equisearch.com. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27 . Retrieved 2007-03-23. Bryant, Jennifer Olson; George Williams (2006). The USDF Guide to Dressage. Storey Publishing. pp.271–272. ISBN 978-1-58017-529-6. Archived from the original on 2023-03-20 . Retrieved 2020-09-28. Myers, Jane (2005). Horse Safe: A Complete Guide to Equine Safety. Collingwood, UK: CSIRO Publishing. p.7. ISBN 0-643-09245-5. OCLC 65466652. Archived from the original on 2023-03-20 . Retrieved 2020-09-28.This resource is perfect for putting up around the home, especially if you're thinking about getting a horse or a pony. Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis. [225] Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat. [225] The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares ( pregnant mares' ur ine), and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy. [226] The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. [227] Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their first reaction to a threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened. [92] They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses. [93] Horses fighting as part of herd dominance behaviour Sequenced horse genome expands understanding of equine, human diseases". Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. 2012-08-21. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10 . Retrieved 2013-04-01.

Bones of the lower limb, present in both the front and hind legs, include the cannon bone (3rd metacarpal/3rd metatarsal), splint bones (2nd and 4th metacarpal/metatarsal), proximal sesamoid bones, long pastern (proximal or 1st phalanx), short pastern (middle or 2nd phalanx), coffin bone (distal or 3rd phalanx), and navicular bone (distal sesamoid). There are usually slight differences in these bones when comparing the front and the hind. The 3rd metatarsal is about 1/6 longer than the 3rd metacarpal. Similarly, the 2nd and 4th metatarsals are longer in length when compared to their front-end counterpart. In the hindlimb, the 1st phalanx is shorter and the 2nd phalanx is longer than in the frontlimb. In addition, the 2nd and 3rd phalanx are narrower in the hind limb. The angle created by these three bones in the hindleg is steeper by about 5 degrees, therefore making the pastern angle steeper behind than in front. The tongue of the horse is spatula-shaped, and the body is narrow. You will find the torus linguae in cattle tongue, but there are no torus linguae in horse tongue. A horse’s esophagus has three parts – cervical, thoracic and abdominal parts. The abdominal part of the esophagus is so small in a horse compared to a cow. Smith, BP (1996). Large Animal Internal Medicine (Seconded.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby. pp.1086–1087. ISBN 0-8151-7724-0. OCLC 33439780.a b Sellnow, Les (2004). Happy Trails: Your Complete Guide to Fun and Safe Trail Riding. Eclipse Press. p. 46. ISBN 1-58150-114-5. OCLC 56493380. I know you already learn the general anatomy of animals. Now, it’s time to compare these anatomical features with a horse. You should cover the following organ’s systems from horse gross anatomy. The renal pelvic is more dialated in the horse. Urinary bladder is comparatively small in horse compare to a cow. Male genital organs from horse anatomy Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system. They also have good spatial discrimination abilities. [96] They are naturally curious and apt to investigate things they have not seen before. [97] Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving, speed of learning, and memory. Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning. They can learn using habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement. [96] One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four. [98]

The tarpan or European wild horse ( Equus ferus ferus) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo. [142] Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan, [142] [143] [144] which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses. Denoix, J. and Pailloux, J., 2011b. Treatment by Anatomical area. In: J. Denoix and J. Pailloux, ed., Physical Therapy and Massage of the Horse, 2nd ed. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press, pp.175-180. Mills, Bruce; Barbara Carne (1988). A Basic Guide to Horse Care and Management. New York: Howell Book House. pp.72–73. ISBN 0-87605-871-3. OCLC 17507227. The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas and together with the occiput, creates an up and down motion of the head, with slight lateral rotation. The second cervical vertebra is called the axis, and together with the atlas, results in rotation of the head.

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Horse Fight vs Flight Instinct". eXtension. 2009-09-24. Archived from the original on 2013-05-15 . Retrieved 2013-04-17. Sacrosciatic ligament: Originates from the sacrum and coccygeal vertebrae, inserts into the pelvis. McIlwraith, C.W. "Developmental Orthopaedic Disease: Problems of Limbs in young Horses". Orthopaedic Research Center. Colorado State University. Archived from the original on 2013-01-14 . Retrieved 2008-04-20.