Newhall C (1999) Professional conduct of scientists during volcanic crises. Bull Volcanol 60(5):323–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00008908 During the March eruption of Alaska's Pavlof volcano, Van Eaton and her colleagues used the World Wide Lightning Location network to monitor the volcano's ash cloud, she said. The ash from Pavlof and other southwest Alaska volcanoes can drift into international and local flight paths. This refers to the amount of volcanic activity. “ Active” means there’s regular activity, “ dormant” means there’s been recent activity but the volcano is currently quiet, and “ extinct” means it’s been so long since the last eruption that it’s unlikely to ever erupt again. 7. Volcanoes can be a variety of shapes. Volcanic activity frequently occurs at the boundaries of the Earth's tectonic plates. The movement of these plates plays a significant role in the type of volcano formed, which influences its shape. Spreading plate margins

Sternlieb F, Bixler RP, Huber-Stearns H (2013) A question of fit: reflections on boundaries, organizations and social–ecological systems. J Environ Manag 130:117–125 It is important to again highlight that current knowledge and research on VALS remains limited. It is not yet possible to outline appropriate or inappropriate use of VALS or to establish guidelines, in part because each VALS and institution using them is driven by their unique, and changing set of contingencies. The VALS Working Group as part of WOVO are working to gather vital information and empirical data on VALS that is much needed to answer many outstanding issues about the use and effectiveness of VALS. Applying this concept to analyse the use of VALS offers to clarify the role of underlying drivers in the way that volcanic crisis communication has operated in practice both prior to and during volcanic emergencies from 2007 to 2009. The USGS VHP is used as a case study. Operating across five observatories, which have been established to monitor and research volcanic phenomena and risk that manifest a wide range of behaviours in different parts of the world, this program engages with a range of different cultures, communities and user and stakeholder groups. Between 2007 and 2009, 93 semi-structured interviews Footnote 3 were conducted with both observatory scientific personnel and relevant user groups associated with the AVO, CVO, Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO), Long Valley Volcano Observatory (LVO) (re-established in 2012 as the California Volcano Observatory CalVo), and Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO). In addition to scientists employed in observatories, interview participants were drawn from user groups including other federal agencies such as US Emergency Managers (country and state levels), the National Weather Service, US Forest and National Park managers, the Federal Aviation Administration, Volcano Ash Advisory Centre staff, local town managers and police and also included local and national media (for a full list, see Fearnley ( 2011, pp. 108–109)). Creech H, Willard T (2001) Strategic intentions: managing knowledge networks for sustainable development. IISD, Winnipeg Newhall CG, Punongbayan R (eds) (1996) Fire and mud: eruptions and lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (p 1126). Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Quezon CityThomalla F, Larsen RK (2010) Resilience in the context of tsunami early warning systems and community disaster preparedness in the Indian Ocean region. Environ Hazards 9:249–265 We are a family-run business, trading since 1983 (online since 2000), serving over half a million customers last year alone. As a five-time winner of the prestigious award “Best UK Online Retailer”, we are passionate about creating a shopping experience that is fun, easy and hassle-free. David PA, Greenstein S (1990) The economics of compatibility standards: an introduction to recent research. Econ Innov New Technol 1:3–41

An] alert level system is a shorthand, is the vehicle, it is the excuse to get into communications and dialogue, that gives you a justification and purpose […] that provides you the entry into having a discussion with very busy people who are otherwise occupied with other duties they have (VHP manager 4). Potter SH (2014) Communicating the status of volcanic activity in New Zealand, with specific application to caldera unrest: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate in Emergency Management at Massey University, Wellington. Massey University, New ZealandLeonard G, Potter S (2015) Developing effective communication tools for volcanic hazards in New Zealand, using social science. Global volcanic hazards and risk. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 305–310 Gardner CA, Guffanti MC (2006) US Geological Survey's alert notification system for volcanic activity (No. 2006-3139) The research that Cash et al. ( 2003) built on had already established that coordinated efforts of the kind invoked by Papale ( 2017) necessarily occur at the hybrid, dynamic interface between scientific and other communities, where the strategic demarcation of scientific and other tasks involves inevitable crossover (Guston 2001; Jasanoff 2011a, b; Parker and Crona 2012; Drimie and Quinlan 2011). In this article, we start from this understanding; it is not possible to restrict scientists to science when they are communicating scientific information across the boundary that divides science and non-science knowledge domains, and neither is it best practice. I think the whole alert level thing is […] an attempt to better communicate with the public, media [and] help scientists convey the message. Most people put too much emphasis on that and not enough with the basic problem, which is communication between scientists and non-scientists (HVO senior scientists 4). Both studies also bring scientists closer solving the mystery of volcanic lighting. "It's surprising that there are really different processes inside a volcanic eruption plume system that generate electrification," van Eaton said. "It opens a world of questions that we didn't even know existed."

Volcanic eruptions are measured using a simple descriptive index known as the Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI) which ranges from zero (non-explosive) to eight (catastrophically explosive). The index combines the amount of material ejected (by volume) with the height of the eruption column and the duration of the eruption. A volcano's eruptive history can provide some clues. However, because only a small number of the world's volcanoes have a known history it is extremely difficult to predict future eruptions, particularly for certain types of volcanoes. Scientists use the repose period, or the time between eruptions, to indicate the expected size and strength of an eruption. Consistently long repose periods may indicate that a volcano's eruptions are usually large and explosive. However, sometimes there is no clear relationship in the length of time between eruptions and the nature of the eruptions. Alexander DE (2014) Communicating earthquake risk to the public: the trial of the “L’Aquila seven”. Nat Hazards 72:1159–1173 They can be found on the ocean floor and under ice caps, too! 10.Lava from a volcano can reach 1,250°C!Since the turn of the century, increasing standardisation across national VALS has occurred, facilitating national adaptations to better fit volcanism type and national emergency management protocols. The growing number of nationally adopted VALS is illustrated, for example, by the 2006 standardisation of USGS VALS, in which three different VALS were replaced by the standard VALS now used at all five volcano observatories (Fearnley 2011). Similarly, until recently, New Zealand operated two systems: one designed for the hazards expected at frequently active cone volcanoes and another for reawakening volcanoes. Both were based on numbered levels (from 0 to 5) (GNS 2010). In 2014, however, these were revised into a single VALS for ground-based hazards (Potter et al. 2017). Many observatories continue to deal with more than one VALS during a crisis. Both the US and New Zealand alert levels are decided by the current activity of a volcano; they do not provide action or advice to users for mitigative action. In contrast, the Japanese VALS states the measures to be taken by specifying areas of danger, indicating the extent of evacuation and outlining expected volcanic activity (Japan Meteorological Agency 2010). In Indonesia, the Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) uses VALS to outline the potential impact of the volcanic behaviour on surrounding communities, integrate capacity building in communities and assist in the implementation of actions during volcanic eruptions according to alert level (Andreastuti et al. 2017). Montserrat Volcano Observatory has designed an VALS whereby certain designated zones on the island are assigned an alert level that determines access restrictions to those zones. These examples demonstrate the diversity in the style, design and use of VALS to cater for the particularly requirements of each observatory; in the case of Monserrat, the need to make sure people move to safe zones or avoid dangerous ones (Donovan and Oppenheimer 2015; Donovan et al. 2012). VALS used in developing countries are more likely to provide advice on mitigative action or evacuations to civil authorities and emergency managers. The many factors involved in designing a VALS include what information is provided, whether actions are recommended, the style of warning (actual or forecast) and the number of VALS used. Different countries may also offer differing capacities for decision-making in response to volcanic activity, moving from an extreme end-member where the alert level de facto establishes actions, through to the public authorities making the decision in isolation from the scientists. Beaven S, Wilson T, Johnston L, Johnston D, Smith R (2017) Role of boundary organization after a disaster: New Zealand’s natural hazards research platform and the 2010-2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence. Nat Hazards Rev 18(2):05016003

Potter SH, Jolly GE, Neall VE, Johnston DM, Scott BJ (2014) Communicating the status of volcanic activity: revising New Zealand’s volcanic alert level system. J Appl Volcanol 3:13 Harris AJ (2015) Forecast communication through the newspaper part 2: perceptions of uncertainty. Bull Volcanol 77(4):30 Compac stone isn’t only suited for standard uses & applications e.g. quartz worktops. There is an infinite range of decorative possibilities and solutions. Dining table tops, BBQ tops, paved shopping centre floors or cladded bar tops & walls. This company brings pigments, resins, ground stone + water-resistant agents, then combines them to create glistening marvels that also act as functional, practical tools facilitating everyday kitchen use.

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Van Eaton ultimately hopes to use lightning flashes to gauge the power of volcanic eruptions remotely. "Lightning is telling us things that other geophysical monitoring techniques can't see," van Eaton told Live Science. Bigger eruptions trigger more lightning, van Eaton said. "Simply seeing that lightning is associated with an eruption tells you that there are potential aviation issues, and it informs the way you respond to a volcano," she said. Brantley SR, Geological survey (U.S.) (1990) The eruption of redoubt volcano, Alaska, December 14, 1989–August 31, 1990. U.S. Geological Survey circular, vol 1061. US Government Printing Office For delivery purposes, the European Union region includes the following 27 EU member states and Monaco: To this day, quartz remains one of our best-selling stone worktops products. It is nearly infallible, defined by near-indestructible properties, easy cleaning & maintenance, but above all exceptional beauty. Quartz is modern, stylish, sleek and perfectly slots into any environment, as though it naturally belongs there.