Burns, William (2003). Witch Hunts in Europe and America: An Encyclopedia. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp.141–142. Geertz, Armin W. (Summer 2011). "Hopi Indian Witchcraft and Healing: On Good, Evil, and Gossip". American Indian Quarterly. 35 (3): 372–393. doi: 10.1353/aiq.2011.a447052. ISSN 0095-182X. OCLC 659388380. PMID 22069814. To the Hopis, witches or evil-hearted persons deliberately try to destroy social harmony by sowing discontent, doubt, and criticism through evil gossip as well as by actively combating medicine men. ... Admitting [he practiced witchcraft] could cost him his life and occult power Harper, Douglas. "witchcraft (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013 . Retrieved 29 October 2013.

Abusch, Tzvi (2015). The Witchcraft Series Maqlû. Writings from the Ancient World. Vol.37. SBL Press. p.5. ISBN 978-1628370829. Kent, Elizabeth. "Masculinity and Male Witches in Old and New England." History Workshop 60 (2005): 69–92. Kelly, A.A., Crafting the Art of Magic, Book I: a History of Modern Witchcraft, 1939–1964, Minnesota: Llewellyn Publications, 1991. [ ISBNmissing] Cumes, David (2004). Africa in my bones. Claremont: New Africa Books. p.14. ISBN 978-0-86486-556-4. Witchcraft, as most commonly understood in both historical and present-day communities, is the use of alleged supernatural powers of magic. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft. Traditionally, "witchcraft" means the use of magic or supernatural powers to inflict harm or misfortune on others, and this remains the most common and widespread meaning. [1] :ix [2] According to Encyclopedia Britannica, "Witchcraft thus defined exists more in the imagination of contemporaries than in any objective reality. Yet this stereotype has a long history and has constituted for many cultures a viable explanation of evil in the world." [3] The belief in witchcraft has been found in a great number of societies worldwide. Anthropologists have applied the English term "witchcraft" to similar beliefs in occult practices in many different cultures, and societies that have adopted the English language have often internalised the term. [4] [2] [5]

The term witchcraft arrived with European colonists, along with European views on witchcraft. [102] This term would be adopted by many Indigenous communities for those beliefs about harmful supernatural powers. In colonial America and the United States, views of witchcraft were further shaped by European colonists. The infamous Salem witch trials in Massachusetts, along with other witch hunts in places like Maryland and Pennsylvania, exemplified European and Christian fear and hysteria surrounding accusations of witchcraft. These trials led to the execution of numerous individuals accused of practicing witchcraft. Despite changes in laws and perspectives over time, accusations of witchcraft persisted into the 19th century in some regions, such as Tennessee, where prosecutions occurred as late as 1833. West, Harry G. Ethnographic Sorcery (p. 24); 2007. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226893983 (pbk.). Molina, Javier Aguilar 2006. "The Invention of Child Witches in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Social cleansing, religious commerce and the difficulties of being a parent in an urban culture". London: Save the Children The publication of “Malleus Maleficarum”—written by two well-respected German Dominicans in 1486—likely spurred witch mania to go viral. The book, usually translated as “The Hammer of Witches,” was essentially a guide on how to identify, hunt and interrogate witches. Cimpric, Aleksandra 2010. Children accused of witchcraft, An anthropological study of contemporary practices in Africa. Dakar, Senegal: UNICEF WCARO

This bookanalyzes the gendered transformation of magical figures occurring in Arthurian romance in England from the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries.Saudi man executed for 'witchcraft and sorcery' ". BBC News. Bbc.com. 19 June 2012. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019 . Retrieved 7 June 2014. Overall, this is a stimulating and accessible contribution to a growing field, and has much to interest historians of medieval and early modern magic.

Savage-Smith, Emilie (2004). Magic and Divination in Early Islam. Ashgate/Variorum. ISBN 978-0860787150. Archived from the original on 18 July 2021 . Retrieved 25 August 2020. Byrne, Carrie 2011. Hunting the vulnerable: Witchcraft and the law in Malawi; Consultancy Africa Intelligence (16 June): One notable event related to the suppression of shamanism occurred in 91 BCE, when Emperor Wu issued an edict that banned a range of "heterodox" practices, including shamanistic rituals and divination, in favor of Confucianism. The primary target of these measures was the Wuism or Wu (巫) tradition, which involved the worship of spirits and the use of shamanic practices to communicate with them. Wuism was considered by the Confucian elite to be superstitious witchcraft and at odds with Confucian principles. [64] :1One pivotal text that shaped the witch-hunts was the Malleus Maleficarum, a 1486 treatise that provided a framework for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing witches. The burgeoning influence of the Catholic Church [ citation needed] led to a wave of witch trials across Europe. Usually, accusations of witchcraft were made by neighbours and followed from social tensions. Accusations often targeted marginalized individuals, including women, the elderly, and those who did not conform to societal norms. Women made accusations as often as men. The common people believed that magical healers (called ' cunning folk' or 'wise people') could undo bewitchment. Hutton says that healers and cunning folk "were sometimes denounced as witches, but seem to have made up a minority of the accused in any area studied". [1] :24-25 The witch-craze reached its peak between the 16th and 17th centuries, resulting in the execution of tens of thousands of people. This dark period of history reflects the confluence of superstition, fear, and authority, as well as the societal tendency to find scapegoats for complex problems.

Indigenous communities such as the Cherokee, [104] Hopi, [105] the Navajo [5] among others, [106] included in their folklore and beliefs which malevolent figures who could harm their communities, often resulting in severe punishments, including death. [107] These communities also recognized the role of medicine people as healers and protectors against these malevolent forces. [ citation needed] Blom, Jan Dirk; Poulina, Igmar T.; van Gellecum, Trevor L.; Hoek, Hans W. (December 2015). "Traditional healing practices originating in Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao: A review of the literature on psychiatry and Brua". Transcultural Psychiatry. 52 (6): 840–860. doi: 10.1177/1363461515589709. PMID 26062555. S2CID 27804741. Saudi woman beheaded for 'witchcraft and sorcery' ". Edition.cnn.com. 13 December 2011. Archived from the original on 21 May 2020 . Retrieved 7 June 2014.

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Semple, Sarah (December 2003). "Illustrations of damnation in late Anglo-Saxon manuscripts" (PDF). Anglo-Saxon England. 32: 231–245. doi: 10.1017/S0263675103000115. S2CID 161982897. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 July 2020 . Retrieved 26 October 2018. Simmons, Marc (1980). Witchcraft in the Southwest: Spanish and Indian Supernaturalism on the Rio Grande. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0803291164.