Albert D. Fraser & David Worth (October 1999). "Experience with a Urine Opiate Screening and Confirmation Cutoff of 2000 mg/ml". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 23 (6): 549–551. doi: 10.1093/jat/23.6.549. PMID 10517566. Legal opium production is allowed under the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and other international drug treaties, subject to strict supervision by the law enforcement agencies of individual countries. The leading legal production method is the Robertson- Gregory process, whereby the entire poppy, excluding roots and leaves, is mashed and stewed in dilute acid solutions. The alkaloids are then recovered via acid-base extraction and purified. The exact date of its discovery is unknown, but it was described by Wurtz in his Dictionnaire de chimie pure et appliquée published in 1868. [138] Eventually, laudanum became readily available and extensively used by the 18th century in Europe, especially England. [33] Compared to other chemicals available to 18th century regular physicians, opium was a benign alternative to arsenic, mercury, or emetics, and it was remarkably successful in alleviating a wide range of ailments. Due to the constipation often produced by the consumption of opium, it was one of the most effective treatments for cholera, dysentery, and diarrhea. As a cough suppressant, opium was used to treat bronchitis, tuberculosis, and other respiratory illnesses. Opium was additionally prescribed for rheumatism and insomnia. [34] Medical textbooks even recommended its use by people in good health, to "optimize the internal equilibrium of the human body". [19] If your use of opium is affecting your health, family, relationships, work, school, financial or other life situations, or you’re concerned about a loved one, you can find help and support.

Hall, Wayne; Weier, Megan (2017). "Lee Robins' studies of heroin use among US Vietnam veterans". Addiction. 112 (1): 177. doi: 10.1111/add.13584. PMID 27650054. S2CID 206974500 . Retrieved July 26, 2022. Professor Arthur C. Gibson. "The Pernicious Opium Poppy". University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013 . Retrieved February 22, 2014. Inglis, Lucy, Milk of Paradise: A History of Opium, Pan Macmillan, London, 2018. **Review: Julie Peakman: "Not Just Smelling the Flowers", History Today History Today Vol. 68/10, October 2018, pp.102–103. Great Britain, India office (1922). The truth about Indian opium. [London] Printed by H.M. Stationery Off.Poppy seeds are a common and flavorsome topping for breads and cakes. One gram of poppy seeds contains up to 33 micrograms of morphine and 14 micrograms of codeine, and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration in the United States formerly mandated that all drug screening laboratories use a standard cutoff of 300 nanograms per milliliter in urine samples. A single poppy seed roll (0.76grams of seeds) usually did not produce a positive drug test, but a positive result was observed from eating two rolls. A slice of poppy seed cake containing nearly five grams of seeds per slice produced positive results for 24 hours. Such results are viewed as false positive indications of drug use and were the basis of a legal defense. [117] [118] On November 30, 1998, the standard cutoff was increased to 2000 nanograms (two micrograms) per milliliter. [119] Confirmation by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry will distinguish amongst opium and variants including poppy seeds, heroin, and morphine and codeine pharmaceuticals by measuring the morphine:codeine ratio and looking for the presence of noscapine and acetylcodeine, the latter of which is only found in illicitly produced heroin, and heroin metabolites such as 6-monoacetylmorphine. [120] Harvesting and processing [ edit ] Harvesting opium Opium and alcohol/benzodiazepines/ketamine/GHB: can increase sedation and lead to unconsciousness, choking on vomit, and possible death. 6,7 a b c d e f g h i j Paul L. Schiff Jr. (2002). "Opium and its alkaloids". American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. Archived from the original on October 21, 2007 . Retrieved May 8, 2007. a b c d Philip Robson (1999). Forbidden Drugs. Oxford University Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-19-262955-5.

Meadway C, George S, Braithwaite R (August 31, 1998). "Opiate concentrations following the ingestion of poppy seed products—evidence for 'the poppy seed defence' ". Forensic Science International. 96 (1): 29–38. doi: 10.1016/S0379-0738(98)00107-8. PMID 9800363. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (841–926)". Saudi Aramco World. January 2002 . Retrieved January 12, 2008.

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Latimer, Dean, and Jeff Goldberg with an Introduction by William Burroughs. Flowers in the Blood: The Story of Opium. New York: Franklin Watts, 1981 Some PBS medications are restricted and require prior approval from Medicare before a doctor is able to prescribe them on the PBS. This prior approval to prescribe grants the doctor the Authority to prescribe the desired medicine and have it funded under the PBS. From the earliest finds, opium has appeared to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power. [11] In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention is credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache. [1] A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics", wearing a crown of three opium poppies, c. 1300 BCE, was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus. [14] [15] The standard medical use of opium persisted well into the 19th century. US president William Henry Harrison was treated with opium in 1841, and in the American Civil War, the Union Army used 175,000lb (80,000kg) of opium tincture and powder and about 500,000 opium pills. [1] During this time of popularity, users called opium "God's Own Medicine". [36] Lomax, Elizabeth (1973). "The Uses and Abuses Of Opiates In Nineteenth-Century England". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 47 (2): 167–176. ISSN 0007-5140. JSTOR 44447528. PMID 4584236 . Retrieved May 31, 2022.

Hamarneh Sami (1972). "Pharmacy in medieval Islam and the history of drug addiction". Medical History. 16 (3): 226–237. doi: 10.1017/s0025727300017725. PMC 1034978. PMID 4595520. Peter Dale Scott, Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus, 1 Nov. 2010, Volume 8 | Issue 44 | Number 2, "Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma" 米国とタイ・ビルマの麻薬 Heroin, the first semi-synthetic opioid, was first synthesized in 1874, but was not pursued until its rediscovery in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann at the Bayer pharmaceutical company in Elberfeld, Germany. From 1898 to 1910 heroin was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough medicine for children. Because the lethal dose of heroin was viewed as a hundred times greater than its effective dose, heroin was advertised as a safer alternative to other opioids. [104] By 1902, sales made up 5 percent of the company's profits, and "heroinism" had attracted media attention. [105] Oxycodone, a thebaine derivative similar to codeine, was introduced by Bayer in 1916 and promoted as a less-addictive analgesic. Preparations of the drug such as oxycodone with paracetamol and extended release oxycodone remain popular to this day. [ citation needed] The renowned Andalusian ophthalmologic surgeon Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi ("Abulcasis", 936–1013 CE) relied on opium and mandrake as surgical anesthetics and wrote a treatise, al-Tasrif, that influenced medical thought well into the 16th century. [23] Thelwall, A. S. (1839). The iniquities of the opium trade with China; being a development of the main causes which exclude the merchants of Great Britain from the advantages of an unrestricted commercial intercourse with that vast empire. With extracts from authentic documents. London: Wm. H. Allen and Co.Great Britain (1913). Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal for regulation of the opium monopolies of the colonies of Hong Kong and Macao. London, Printed for H.M. Stationery office. by Harrison and sons, ltd. Inspiration: In 1977 Yves Saint Laurent introduces Opium: a boundary-pushing perfume. A revolution in a bottle. A new idea of femininity: sultry, provocative, enthralling. This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( October 2022) Manuscripts of Pseudo-Apuleius's 5th-century work from the 10th and 11th centuries refer to the use of wild poppy Papaver agreste or Papaver rhoeas (identified as P. silvaticum) instead of P. somniferum for inducing sleep and relieving pain. [27] Poppy seeds do have small amounts of opium content and eating poppy seeds may rarely yield a positive result on drug tests. Usually, most of the opium is removed from the poppy seeds during processing. However, according to the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA), drug testing will account for the morphine threshold level. According to the USADA, morphine and codeine may be detected in the urine up to 2 days after consuming poppy seeds from baked items such as pastries, bagels, muffins, and cakes. WADA-accredited laboratories mark a urine sample as positive for morphine when the level exceeds 1.3 micrograms/mL.