These population shifts aren’t unique to Septoria. The same applies to all wheat and barley disease pathogens, which is why the partnership with prothioconazole is also important. Our SanDisk Extreme SD UHS-I V3 tests saw write speeds live up to its claims, matching them almost exactly at 71.6MB/s. But as with most other cards on this list, the read speeds leave a bit to be desired, coming in at almost half the claimed speed, 71.6MB/s. All can be forgiven, though, bearing in mind the extremely low cost of these cards, especially while still offering such high capacity to users at up to 256GB sizes.

Its all-round activity ideally suits it to the key T1 and T2 timings in wheat, and barley too, where it has full approval for malting crops. Card classifications like V30 or U3 are just categorizations of these speeds. There are three main classes: Speed Class (denoted with a number in a circle), UHS Speed Class (a number in an open beaker-like icon), and a Video Speed Class (V followed by a number). The numbers indicate the minimum writing speed when put under data transfer. Speed class is categorized into Class 2 (a minimum write speed of 2MB/s), Class 4 (4MB/s), Class 6 (6MB/s), and 10 (10MB/s). Choosing the best one for your camera depends on your camera's resolution, buffer size and burst shooting speeds. An additional clue is the UHS Speed Class rating, which is U1 or U3. U1 means it can write a minimum of 10MB/s (like Class 10), while U3 pushes the write speed up to a minimum of 30MB/s. More interested in shooting video? The Video Speed Classes are V6, V10, V30, V60, and V90, with V6 suitable for standard definition video recording and V90 capable of 8K video capture. 4K UHD video recording will require a minimum of V10 ideally, and HD video can utilize V6 or below at a push. How we test SD cards It could also be particularly relevant in feed wheat where pushing for output. Combined together, wheat ears and flag leaves contribute over 60% to yield.A. The new active ingredient for this season is bixafen from Bayer CropScience. It will be available in wheat as Aviator 235 Xpro combined with the azole fungicide, prothioconazole. The same combination of active ingredients will be available in a different ratio for use in barley, as Siltra Xpro. The combination of two SDHIs complement each other through incomplete cross-resistance, bolstering Septoria protection. If a shift in sensitivity occurs with bixafen we don’t see it with fluopyram and vice-versa. Our Septoria population is constantly evolving, which is why we see fluctuations in fungicide performance. Ascra’s incomplete cross-resistance is a factor in its consistent performance over several seasons. So far, the 96 h LC 50 values for freshly fertilized zebrafish embryos (2–6 hpf) have been determined for the SDHIs bixafen [ 15, 16], boscalid [ 17], flutolanil [ 18], fluxapyroxad [ 19], isopyrazam [ 20], penthiopyrad [ 21], sedaxane [ 22], and thifluzamide [ 23]. The results confirm that most of these compounds display moderate toxicity, with 96 h LC 50 values ranging from 2 to 17 µM, as shown in Table 1. The one exception is isopyrazam, which was highly toxic toward zebrafish embryos (96 h LC 50 140 nM) (20), recalling the high toxicity identified in adult rainbow trout (96 h LC 50 70 nM). As shown in Table 1, most acute toxicity data obtained with zebrafish embryos were in close agreement with those reported in the IUPAC database for other fish species. However, differences were also observed. Bixafen was highly toxic to adult rainbow trout (96 h LC 50 230 nM) but was only moderately toxic to zebrafish embryos (96 h LC 50 2.12 μM (15) and 2.7 µM (16)) ( Table 1 and Table 2). However, further work is needed to determine whether these differences are due to species-specific or stage-specific toxicities of the SDHI bixafen. The new generation also offers a degree of curative control against septoria. It isn’t enough to simply replace triazole fungicides, but the combination of SDHI and azole will provide as good as curative activity as you could hope to achieve.

Because the sensitivity to toxicants may vary according to the stage of individuals, the 96 h LC 50 values of thifluzamide [ 23], flutolanil [ 18], and fluxapyroxad [ 19] were also determined for zebrafish adults and larvae, and Qian et al. [ 21] also studied the acute toxicity of penthiopyrad in zebrafish larvae ( Table 1). The adverse effects of boscalid on CNS development and functioning were investigated in two recent studies. First, Wang et al. [ 39] showed that embryos exposed for 48 h to boscalid at 14.56 µM and above displayed gross brain defects, including decreased number of newborn neurons, enlarged brain ventricles, and reduced number of spontaneous movements. In addition, 6 dpf larvae exposed for 24 h to boscalid at 14.56 µM displayed markedly decreased locomotion. Using environmentally relevant concentrations, Qian et al. [ 31] found that larvae exposed for 7 days to boscalid at 0.87 and 1.74 µM showed significant inhibition of locomotor abilities and reduced phototactic response, respectively. Following 4 or 8 days of exposure to boscalid at 1.74 µM, larvae also showed decreased AChE activity and defects in cerebellar granule cell and retina neuron differentiation. Long-term toxicity studies (21 days) of boscalid toward adults indicated that exposure to 2.9 µM caused significant inhibition in average velocity and acceleration, but a significant increase in active time and distance moved, and exposure to 0.029 µM markedly impaired predatory abilities. Lastly, transcriptome analysis indicated changes in the expression of genes related to neurodevelopment in embryos exposed to bixafen at 1.74 µM for 96 h or 0.87 µM for 8 days, with downregulation of mbp and synapsinIIa, and upregulation of gap43. In addition, several genes required for eye development and phototransduction, opn1sw1, opn1mw1, opn4.1, and rho, were significantly upregulated following exposure to 0.87 µM boscalid for 8 days but downregulated with higher concentrations (3.49 µM). Exposure to subacute doses of boscalid thus impaired several essential neuro-behavioral processes, locomotion, and the ability to detect prey, possibly caused by visual system defects and a severe reduction in cerebellar granule cells. Provided it hasn’t been applied to the crop before and provided that no more than one foliar SDHI has been applied to the crop, Elatus Era is an excellent option to consider at T2. Even in crops where few disease symptoms are visible at T2, it is important not to be complacent. As with other fungicide timings, T2 is there to protect the crop’s future. As the weather warms, later-season disease can rapidly increase. Besides the acute toxicity of SDHIs and their LC 50 values for embryos, larvae, or adults, we know that environmental toxicants can also induce adverse effects impairing various developmental processes. Zebrafish embryos have provided versatile tools to characterize the developmental toxicities of the nine SDHIs reviewed here and also help in deciphering their associated adverse outcome pathways. In particular, because the mode of action of SDHIs is inhibition of SDH/CII in fungi, zebrafish embryos have been instrumental in investigating the effects of these fungicides on mitochondrion metabolism, fatty acid synthesis, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation. The adverse effects of these SDHIs on the development and functioning of the CNS, and on behavior, are reviewed below.The number of applications of SDHI fungicide-based products within a total disease management program must be limited. Cools HJ, Fraaije BA (2013) Update on mechanisms of azole resistance in Mycosphaerella graminicola and implications for future control. Pest Manag Sci 69:150–155 Huf A, Rehfus A, Lorenz KH, Bryson R, Voegele RT, Stammler G (2018) Proposal for a new nomenclature f Fraaije BA, Cools HJ, Kim S, Motteram J, Clark WS, Lucas JA (2007) A novel substitution I381V in the sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) of Mycosphaerella graminicola is differentially selected by azole fungicides. Mol Plant Pathol 8:245–254

Avenot H.F., A. Sellam, G. Karaoglanidis, and T.J. Michailides. 2008. Characterization of mutations in the iron-sulphur subunit of succinate dehydrogenase correlating with boscalid resistance in Alternaria alternata from California pistachio. Phytopathology 98: 736-742 Ascra excels for grower convenience, with wide dose flexibility, excellent return on investment, label approval for use in wheat and barley, our proven Leafshield formulation, and a ratio of prothioconazole, bixafen and fluopyram to meet FRAC guidelines. A maximum of 4 SDHI fungicide applications may be used where 12 or morefungicide applications are made per crop.

Materials and methods

While the higher capacity cards increase in price exponentially, the 633x appears in sizes as small as 16GB, making it suitable for a wide range of photographers and videographers alike who require all kinds of capacities for casual or professional use. We found its write speed to be a little slow compared to other UHS-I cards in this class range, but it’s good value for money and the V30/U3 class listing means it’s still suitable for up to 4K UHD video recording. Qian et al. [ 21] studied the subacute toxicity of penthiopyrad toward embryos following 96 h of exposure. The results indicated that penthiopyrad at 3.32 µM impaired lipid metabolism, including fatty acid synthesis and ß-oxidation. This SDHI caused pericardiac edema (0.83 µM) and decreased heartbeat and yolk sac edema (1.66 µM). Penthiopyrad also induced downregulation of genes involved in lipid metabolism: srebf1 (0.83 µM) and hmgcra, pparα 1, cyp51, and acca1 (1.66 µM). A. Yes, afraid so. The University of Bonn has done research for Bayer which found that Xpro had 11 times the amount of chlorophyll in the flag leaf at GS85 in disease-free plants compared with the untreated. That compared with just twice the amount of chlorophyll in the leaves treated with prothioconazole or boscalid. The researchers also found the length and width of the Xpro treated flag leaves was more. Strategies for the management of SDHI fungicide resistance, in all crops, are based on the statements listed below. These statements serve as a fundamental guide for the development of local resistance management programs. A. High disease pressure situations, particularly septoria, would be a clear reason to switch a flag leaf spray into the new chemistry. In 2008, the last high pressure season, both firms were seeing high yield responses from the new chemistry over existing standards, sometimes of over 1t/ha.

Délye C, Laigret F, Corio-Costet MF (1997) A mutation in the 14α-demethylase gene of Uncinula necator that correlates with resistance to a sterol biosynthesis inhibitor. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:2966–2970 This has been proven in Silsoe Spray Applications Unit trials, research demonstrating rapid droplet spread across leaf surface and uniform distribution, sealing in disease from escaping. That assessment, however, has been made on the basis of comparing Syngenta-made formulations of each new SDHI active ingredient rather than the ones the actual manufacturer uses.

Discussion

Cools HJ, Fraaije BA (2008) Are azole fungicides losing ground against Septoria wheat disease? Resistance mechanisms in Mycosphaerella graminicola. Pest Manag Sci 64:681–684 was another year of unseasonal weather, with a mostly cool dry spring giving way to warm and wet weather later – ideal Septoria conditions. Compounded by delayed leaf emergence and stretched spray timings, wheat crops came under intense late disease pressure. Quite rightly, Fusarium risk often drives T3 fungicide decisions. This clearly remains extremely important given mycotoxin risks from Fusarium. As well as choosing an appropriate Fusarium-active fungicide and applying it at a suitable dose, achieving the correct spray timing (GS63-65) is critical when targeting Fusarium. Those relate to the active ingredients’ structure, which in addition to having pyrazole ring common to all SDHI active ingredients, also has a benzonorbene ring, which ultimately underpins its field performance, the firm’s Jez Godwin says.