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a b c d e Peake JM, Neubauer O, Walsh NP, Simpson RJ (May 2017). "Recovery of the immune system after exercise" (PDF). Journal of Applied Physiology. 122 (5): 1077–1087. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00622.2016. PMID 27909225. S2CID 3521624. Renkvist N, Castelli C, Robbins PF, Parmiani G (March 2001). "A listing of human tumor antigens recognized by T cells". Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy. 50 (1): 3–15. doi: 10.1007/s002620000169. PMID 11315507. S2CID 42681479. The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, followed in March 2001 by a client version ( Mac OS X v10.0 "Cheetah"). Since then, six more distinct "client" and " server" editions of macOS have been released, until the two were merged in OS X 10.7 "Lion".Developers like Keith Bostic encouraged the project to replace any non-free code that originated with Bell Labs. Once this was done, however, AT&T sued. After two years of legal disputes, the BSD project spawned a number of free derivatives, such as NetBSD and FreeBSD (both in 1993), and OpenBSD (from NetBSD in 1995).

Majde JA, Krueger JM (December 2005). "Links between the innate immune system and sleep". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 116 (6): 1188–98. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.08.005. PMID 16337444.The success of any pathogen depends on its ability to elude host immune responses. Therefore, pathogens evolved several methods that allow them to successfully infect a host, while evading detection or destruction by the immune system. [169] Bacteria often overcome physical barriers by secreting enzymes that digest the barrier, for example, by using a type II secretion system. [170] Alternatively, using a type III secretion system, they may insert a hollow tube into the host cell, providing a direct route for proteins to move from the pathogen to the host. These proteins are often used to shut down host defenses. [171] Early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could automatically run different programs in succession to speed up processing. Operating systems did not exist in their modern and more complex forms until the early 1960s. [9] Hardware features were added, that enabled use of runtime libraries, interrupts, and parallel processing. When personal computers became popular in the 1980s, operating systems were made for them similar in concept to those used on larger computers.

Understanding the Immune System: How it Works" (PDF). National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2007 . Retrieved 1 January 2007. In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one program at a time. Each user had sole use of the computer for a limited period and would arrive at a scheduled time with their program and data on punched paper cards or punched tape. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or crashed. Programs could generally be debugged via a front panel using toggle switches and panel lights. It is said that Alan Turing was a master of this on the early Manchester Mark 1 machine, and he was already deriving the primitive conception of an operating system from the principles of the universal Turing machine. [9] Dettmer P (2021). Immune: A Journey into the Mysterious System that Keeps You Alive. Philip Laibacher (illustrations). New York: Random House. ISBN 9780593241318. OCLC 1263845194. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021 . Retrieved 4 January 2022. (The book's sources are only online.) A popular science explanation of the immune system. Krueger JM, Majde JA (May 2003). "Humoral links between sleep and the immune system: research issues". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 992 (1): 9–20. Bibcode: 2003NYASA.992....9K. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb03133.x. PMID 12794042. S2CID 24508121.

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Harty JT, Tvinnereim AR, White DW (2000). "CD8+ T cell effector mechanisms in resistance to infection". Annual Review of Immunology. 18 (1): 275–308. doi: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.18.1.275. PMID 10837060. Taylor DJ, Kelly K, Kohut ML, Song KS (2017). "Is Insomnia a Risk Factor for Decreased Influenza Vaccine Response?". Behavioral Sleep Medicine. 15 (4): 270–287. doi: 10.1080/15402002.2015.1126596. PMC 5554442. PMID 27077395. Later machines came with libraries of programs, which would be linked to a user's program to assist in operations such as input and output and compiling (generating machine code from human-readable symbolic code). This was the genesis of the modern-day operating system. However, machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge University in England, the job queue was at one time a washing line (clothesline) from which tapes were hung with different colored clothes-pegs to indicate job priority. [ citation needed] Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. In immunology, self molecules are components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. [6] Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (originally named for being antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response. [7] Surface barriers [ edit ]