During the 20th century, interest in witchcraft rose in Britain. From the 1920s, Margaret Murray popularized the ' witch-cult hypothesis': the idea that those persecuted as 'witches' in early modern Europe were followers of a benevolent pagan religion that had survived the Christianization of Europe. This has been discredited by further historical research. [4] :121 [122] The idea that witches gained their powers through a pact with the Devil provided a satisfactory explanation, and allowed authorities to develop a mythology through which they could project accusations of crimes formerly associated with various heretical sects (cannibalism, ritual infanticide, and the worship of demonic familiars) onto the newly emerging threat of diabolical witchcraft. This pact and the ceremony that accompanied it became widely known as the witches' sabbath. The idea of a pact became important—one could be possessed by the Devil and not responsible for one's actions; but to be a witch, one had to sign a pact with the Devil, often to worship him, which was heresy and meant damnation. The idea of an explicit and ceremonial pact with the Devil was crucial to the development of the witchcraft concept, because it provided an explanation that differentiated the figure of the witch from that of the learned necromancer or sorcerer. [70] Merlin is said to have been born from the relationship of an incubus with a mortal (illumination from a 13th-century French manuscript) Meanwhile, legends of Thessalian witches developed during the Classical Greek period. [13] According to many sources, Thessaly was notorious for being a haven for witches, [14] and "folklore about the region has persisted with tales of witches, drugs, poisons and magical spells ever since the Roman period." [15] Hoggard, Brian (2004). "The archaeology of counter-witchcraft and popular magic", in Beyond the Witch Trials: Witchcraft and Magic in Enlightenment Europe, Manchester University Press. p. 167

My second choice is ‘ Between the Living and the Dead’ by Éva Pócs. Somewhat different, Ms. Pócs peers through a folkloric lens into the fantastic dreaming worlds of the supernatural, of spirit flight, doppelgangers, werewolves, snake-seers, night-battles, the un-dead and the Sabbat. No less intense, this work studies also the nature of belief, and how we seek to communicate with the ‘Other.’ While the common people were aware of the difference between witches, who they considered willing to undertake evil actions, such as cursing, and cunning folk who avoided involvement in such activities, the Church attempted to blot out the distinction. In much the same way that culturally distinct non-Christian religions were all lumped together and termed merely "Pagan", so too was all magic lumped together as equally sinful and abhorrent. The earliest written reference to witches as such, from Ælfric's homilies, [68] portrays them as malign. In the world of late antiquity or the early Middle Ages, it is impossible to define someone as a witch (as opposed, for example, to an amateur herbalist, a heretic or a scold), and none of the legislation of the time attempted to do so. Offenders were designated offenders by virtue of their performing various actions or wearing certain objects declared by the legislation to be condemned or forbidden. For all practical purposes, the 'witch' had not yet been invented. There were only practitioners of various kinds of magic, both male and female, who might belong to any rank of ecclesiastical or lay society, and whose actions might, or might not, bring them within the compass of canon or secular law, depending on external factors that were usually local but could, from time to time, be more general. [61] It was commonly believed that individuals with power and prestige were involved in acts of witchcraft and even cannibalism. [48] Because Europe had a lot of power over individuals living in West Africa, Europeans in positions of power were often accused of taking part in these practices. Though it is not likely that these individuals were actually involved in these practices, they were most likely associated due to Europe's involvement in things like the slave trade, which negatively affected the lives of many individuals in the Atlantic World throughout the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries. [48]This conforms to the thoughts of Saint Augustine of Hippo, who taught that witchcraft did not exist and that the belief in it was heretical. [59] Paul Huson’s “ Mastering Witchcraft” is incredibly valuable because he goes to Medieval and Renaissance sources for real historical spell-workings, and the sublime spirit they invoke is transformative all by itself. His practical instructions for how to accomplish these spells is as close to perfect as I’ve ever seen for a general audience. While he does rely on certain mainstream magical techniques (intent, visualization, etc) which I don’t personally find overly compelling, it still has enormous force for enrapturing a person’s will in the service of these workings. The use of hallucinogens in European witchcraft is a topic explored by modern researchers and historical records. Anthropologists such as Edward B. Taylor and pharmacologists like Louis Lewin have argued for the presence of plants like belladonna and mandrake in witchcraft practices, containing hallucinogenic alkaloids. Johannes Hartlieb (1410-1468) wrote a compendium on herbs in ca. 1440, and in 1456 the puch aller verpoten kunst, ungelaubens und der zaubrey (book on all forbidden arts, superstition and sorcery) on the artes magicae, containing the oldest known description of witches' flying ointment. Medieval accounts from writers including Joseph Glanvill and Johannes Nider describe the use of hallucinogenic concoctions, often referred to as ointments or brews, applied to sensitive areas of the body or objects like brooms for inducing altered states of consciousness. These substances were believed to grant witches special abilities to commune with spirits, transform into animals, and participate in supernatural gatherings, forming a complex aspect of the European witchcraft tradition. [153] [154] Arguments in favor [ edit ] The "magical" or "sorcerer" witch: either a professional healer, sorcerer, seer or midwife, or a person who was thought to have used magic to increase her fortune to the perceived detriment of a neighboring household; due to neighborhood or community rivalries, and the ambiguity between positive and negative magic, such individuals can become branded as witches. The first is ‘ Witchcraft and Religion’ by Christina Larner. Ms Larner is a personal favourite; her books cover the very roots of belief, faith, culture and the historical criminalisation of witchcraft. She studies gender roles and social diversity in relativistic and ethnocentric terms, raising questions on primitivism, revisionism and cultural appropriation – a very topical volume.

The latter part of this book does utilize many recognizable Wiccan elements, but somehow even they don’t seem offensive or “too borrowed” in light of the overall dark majesty that this book communicates. They seem to fit in, somehow. The mythos of the Watchers, which is given by Huson in the first part of the book, is likewise strangely seductive and fitting. It presents an alternative paradigm to the God/Goddess duality you see in so much modern witchcraft- an alternative paradigm which is more in keeping or more in sympathy, at least to my mind, with the dark spiritual ecology that is at the heart of real witchcraft. Shani Oates There are chapters explaining the most crucial metaphysical understandings I can imagine- like the true nature of the Wind Indweller, whom I believe is the “Master” spirit behind traditional witchcraft- and helping people to break free of the anti-sensualist and alienating world we all live in.Contemporary witchcraft in Italy represents a revival and reinterpretation of ancient pagan practices, often referred to as " Stregheria" or "La Vecchia Religione" (The Old Religion). [126] Rooted in Italian cultural and mystical heritage, modern Italian witches blend elements of traditional folklore, spirituality, and magic. This resurgence draws from historical beliefs, superstitions, and the desire to reconnect with Italy's pre-Christian spiritual roots. [127]

Collins, Derek (2001). "Theoris of Lemnos and the Criminalization of Magic in Fourth-Century Athens". The Classical Quarterly. 51 (2): 477–493. doi: 10.1093/cq/51.2.477. Then there are books that may be described as “practical” guides- books where people talk about working tools, and rituals, and suchlike. I could fairly answer this question if asked to give five books from four different areas of knowledge. But since you have asked for just five, I gave them as best I could.

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My final choice is a charming little book, ‘ The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns and Fairies’ by Robert Kirk. Published originally in 17th century Scotland, this remarkable study reveals the vibrant realms of the ‘other’ that spill over into our own, creating havoc and mischief. Laced with folklore and popular superstition, the author, a Scottish minister ‘roamed the highlands of Scotland for stories of wraiths, elves and ‘other agents of the spirit world.’ His enchanting account preserves for us the nature of belief and how witchcraft traditions were absorbed into common folk practises. Nigel Pearson Since the 1940s, neopagan witchcraft movements have emerged in Europe, seeking to revive and reinterpret ancient pagan and mystical practices. Wicca, pioneered by Gerald Gardner, stands out as one of the most influential neopagan traditions. Drawing inspiration from ceremonial magic, historical paganism, and the now-discredited witch-cult theory, Wicca emphasizes a connection to nature, the divine, and personal growth. Similarly, Stregheria in Italy reflects a desire to reconnect with the country's pre-Christian spiritual roots. Many of these neopagans choose to self-identify as "witches." Contemporary, neopagan witchcraft in Europe encompasses a wide range of traditions, reflecting a blend of historical influences, modern interpretations, new religious movements, and a search for spiritual authenticity in a rapidly changing world. Gemma Gary’s “ Traditional Witchcraft” is now a modern classic, due to its detailed but easily understood instructions on practical Craft. That it details the magic of Cornwall is both fascinating as a glimpse into that area, but also more than equally applicable in other areas also. Her rites are based not only on traditional lore, but her own, practical experience, which makes the book only the more valuable. Much of the knowledge of herbalism in European witchcraft comes from the Spanish Inquisitors and other authorities, who occasionally recognized the psychological nature of the "witches' flight", but more often considered the effects of witches' ointments to be demonic or satanic. [160] Use patterns [ edit ] Berries of belladonna

Unlike the severe witchcraft trials that plagued Western Europe, witchcraft historically took on a different form in Romania. The Romanian Orthodox Church's integration of pre-Christian beliefs and the reliance on village healers in the absence of modern medicine led to a less punitive approach. Instead of harsh punishments, those accused of witchcraft often faced spiritual consequences, such as fasting or temporary bans from the church. [134] [135] Mastering Witchcraft – Paul Huson: I suspect many people will mention this book because it is one of the few genuinely entry-level, practical guides to witchcraft from a not-specifically-Wiccan angle.The height of the witch-craze was concurrent with the rise of Renaissance magic in the great humanists of the time (this was called high magic, and the Neoplatonists and Aristotelians that practised it took pains to insist that it was wise and benevolent and nothing like witchcraft, which was considered low magic), which helped abet the rise of the craze. Witchcraft was held to be the worst of heresies, and early skepticism slowly faded from view almost entirely. The origins of the accusations against witches in the Early Modern period are eventually present in trials against heretics, which trials include claims of secret meetings, orgies, and the consumption of babies.