The Directory was established as a result of the Thermidorian Reaction, it was a five-member executive body that ruled France until 1799 Gattei, Stefano (2008). Thomas Kuhn's 'Linguistic Turn' and the Legacy of Logical Empiricism: Incommensurability, Rationality and the Search for Truth (1ed.). London: Routledge. p.292. doi: 10.4324/9781315236124. ISBN 9781315236124. Kuhn, T. S. "The Function of Dogma in Scientific Research". pp.347–369 in A.C.Crombie (ed.). Scientific Change (Symposium on the History of Science, University of Oxford, July 9–15, 1961). New York and London: Basic Books and Heineman, 1963. A science may go through these cycles repeatedly, though Kuhn notes that it is a good thing for science that such shifts do not occur often or easily. Kordig maintains that there is a common observational plane. For example, when Kepler and Tycho Brahe are trying to explain the relative variation of the distance of the sun from the horizon at sunrise, both see the same thing (the same configuration is focused on the retina of each individual). This is just one example of the fact that "rival scientific theories share some observations, and therefore some meanings". Kordig suggests that with this approach, he is not reintroducing the distinction between observations and theory in which the former is assigned a privileged and neutral status, but that it is possible to affirm more simply the fact that, even if no sharp distinction exists between theory and observations, this does not imply that there are no comprehensible differences at the two extremes of this polarity.

Relativistic mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the total energy of the particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since the total energy of a particle in relation to one system of reference differs from the total energy in relation to other systems of reference, while the speed of light remains constant in all systems, it follows that the mass of a particle has different values in different systems of reference. With the Japanese defeat in 1945, Mao Tse-tung was able to set his sights on controlling all of China. Efforts were made — by the United States in particular — to establish a coalition government, but China slid into a bloody civil war. On October 1, 1949, in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, Mao announced the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Chiang Kai-shek and his followers fled to the island of Taiwan, where they formed the Republic of China. Those who study a scientific discipline are expected to know its exemplars. There is no fixed set of exemplars, but for a physicist today it would probably include the harmonic oscillator from mechanics and the hydrogen atom from quantum mechanics. [26] Kuhn on scientific progress [ edit ]Irzik, Gürol; Grünberg, Teo (June 1, 1998). "Whorfian variations on Kantian themes: Kuhn's linguistic turn". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 29 (2): 207–221. Bibcode: 1998SHPSA..29..207I. doi: 10.1016/S0039-3681(98)00003-X. ISSN 0039-3681. Mao Tse-tung authored many books, among them: On Guerilla Warfare (1937), On New Democracy (1940), and Quotations From Chairman Mao Tse-Tung (1946-1976). Legacy and Death Field, Hartry (August 1973). "Theory Change and the Indeterminacy of Reference". The Journal of Philosophy. 70 (14): 462–481. doi: 10.2307/2025110. JSTOR 2025110.

Such incommensurability exists not just before and after a paradigm shift, but in the periods in between conflicting paradigms. It is simply not possible, according to Kuhn, to construct an impartial language that can be used to perform a neutral comparison between conflicting paradigms, because the very terms used are integral to the respective paradigms, and therefore have different connotations in each paradigm. The advocates of mutually exclusive paradigms are in a difficult position: "Though each may hope to convert the other to his way of seeing science and its problems, neither may hope to prove his case. The competition between paradigms is not the sort of battle that can be resolved by proofs." [22] Scientists subscribing to different paradigms end up talking past one another. A number of the included essays question the existence of normal science. In his essay, Feyerabend suggests that Kuhn's conception of normal science fits organized crime as well as it does science. [50] Popper expresses distaste with the entire premise of Kuhn's book, writing, "the idea of turning for enlightenment concerning the aims of science, and its possible progress, to sociology or to psychology (or ... to the history of science) is surprising and disappointing." [51] Concept of paradigm [ edit ] In 1973, Hartry Field published an article that also sharply criticized Kuhn's idea of incommensurability. [54] In particular, he took issue with this passage from Kuhn: Kuhn made several claims concerning the progress of scientific knowledge: that scientific fields undergo periodic "paradigm shifts" rather than solely progressing in a linear and continuous way, and that these paradigm shifts open up new approaches to understanding what scientists would never have considered valid before; and that the notion of scientific truth, at any given moment, cannot be established solely by objective criteria but is defined by a consensus of a scientific community. Competing paradigms are frequently incommensurable; that is, they are competing and irreconcilable accounts of reality. Thus, our comprehension of science can never rely wholly upon "objectivity" alone. Science must account for subjective perspectives as well, since all objective conclusions are ultimately founded upon the subjective conditioning/worldview of its researchers and participants.

Bird, Alexander (2013). "Thomas Kuhn". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University . Retrieved 23 September 2017. Brad Wray, K. (2011). Kuhn's Evolutionary Social Epistemology. Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511997990. ISBN 9780511997990. In 1918, Mao Tse-tung graduated from the Hunan First Normal School, becoming a certified teacher. That same year, his mother died, and he had no desire to return home. He traveled to Beijing, but was unsuccessful in finding a job. He finally found a position as a librarian assistant at Beijing University and attended a few classes. At about this time, he heard of the successful Russian Revolution, which established the communist Soviet Union. In 1921, he became one of the inaugural members of the Chinese Communist Party.

Kuhn's work has been extensively used in social science; for instance, in the post-positivist/ positivist debate within International Relations. Kuhn is credited as a foundational force behind the post- Mertonian sociology of scientific knowledge. Kuhn's work has also been used in the Arts and Humanities, such as by Matthew Edward Harris to distinguish between scientific and historical communities (such as political or religious groups): 'political-religious beliefs and opinions are not epistemologically the same as those pertaining to scientific theories'. [18] This is because would-be scientists' worldviews are changed through rigorous training, through the engagement between what Kuhn calls 'exemplars' and the Global Paradigm. Kuhn's notions of paradigms and paradigm shifts have been influential in understanding the history of economic thought, for example the Keynesian revolution, [19] and in debates in political science. [20] Mao Tse-tung died from complications of Parkinson's disease on September 9, 1976, at the age of 82, in Beijing, China. He left a controversial legacy in both China and the West as a genocidal monster and political genius. Officially, in China, he is held in high regard as a great political strategist and military mastermind, the savior of the nation. However, Mao's efforts to close China to trade and market commerce and eradicate traditional Chinese culture have largely been rejected by his successors. While his emphasis on China's self-reliance and the rapid industrialization that he promoted is credited with laying the foundation for China's late 20th century development, his harsh methods and insensitivity to anyone who didn't give him full faith and allegiance have been widely rebuked as self-defeating.For the next 12 months, more than 100,000 Communists and their dependents trekked west and north in what became known as the "Long March" across the Chinese mountains and swampland to Yanan, in northern China. It was estimated that only 30,000 of the original 100,000 survived the 8,000-mile journey. As word spread that the Communists had escaped extermination by the Kuomintang, many young people migrated to Yanan. Here Mao employed his oratory talents and inspired volunteers to faithfully join his cause as he emerged the top Communist leader. Japanese-Chinese Conflict and Mao's Rise To Power J. Conant; J. Haugeland, eds. (2000). The Road Since Structure. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.98–99. (A collection of Kuhn’s last philosophical essays.) Kuhn, T. S. The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957. ISBN 0-674-17100-4

The changes that occur in politics, society and business are often expressed in Kuhnian terms, however poor their parallel with the practice of science may seem to scientists and historians of science. The terms " paradigm" and " paradigm shift" have become such notorious clichés and buzzwords that they are sometimes viewed as effectively devoid of content. [47] [48] Criticisms [ edit ] Front cover of Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave, ed., Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge Politi, Vincenzo (May 1, 2018). "Scientific revolutions, specialization and the discovery of the structure of DNA: toward a new picture of the development of the sciences". Synthese. 195 (5): 2267–2293. doi: 10.1007/s11229-017-1339-6. hdl: 1983/32dee9c6-622c-40ed-ae78-735c87060561. ISSN 1573-0964. S2CID 255062115.Thomas S. Kuhn Papers, MC 240. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Institute Archives and Special Collections, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Lakatos, Imre; Musgrave, Alan, eds. (1970). Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. International Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science, London, 1965. Vol.4. Cambridge University Press. p.292. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139171434. ISBN 9780521096232. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Enlarged (2nded.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-45803-8. LCCN 70107472. Garfield, Eugene (20 April 1987). "A Different Sort of Great Books List: The 50 Twentieth-Century Works Most Cited in the Arts & Humanities Citation Index, 1976–1983" (PDF). Essays of an Information Scientist (1987 Current Contents). 10 (16): 3–7.