J.P. Jones (February 1931). "Lascars in the port of London". P.L.A. Monthly . Retrieved May 12, 2007. The opium trade under the Chinese Communist Party was important to its finances in the 1940s. [82] Peter Vladimirov's diary provided a first hand account. [83] Chen Yung-fa provided a detailed historical account of how the opium trade was essential to the economy of Yan'an during this period. [84] Mitsubishi and Mitsui were involved in the opium trade during the Japanese occupation of China. [85] Ladenburg, Thomas (1974). "Chapter 1, The French in Indochina" (PDF). University of Houston. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 1, 2023 . Retrieved March 21, 2023. Pablo Bartholomew (1996). "Opium for the masses: photo essay on cultivation of opium in India". Archived from the original on July 1, 2007 . Retrieved June 15, 2007.

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Jennifer Hull (June 24, 2001). "Eastern Europe Shooting Up Under A Red Star". Time . Retrieved April 17, 2020. Lomax, Elizabeth (1973). "The Uses and Abuses Of Opiates In Nineteenth-Century England". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 47 (2): 167–176. ISSN 0007-5140. JSTOR 44447528. PMID 4584236 . Retrieved May 31, 2022.Ouchterlony, John (1844). The Chinese war: an account of all the operations of the British forces from the commencement to the Treaty of Nanking. London: Saunders and Otley. a b c d e Brown Richard Harvey (2002). "The Opium Trade And Opium Policies In India, China, Britain, And The United States: Historical Comparisons And Theoretical Interpretations". Asian Journal of Social Science. 30 (3): 623. doi: 10.1163/156853102320945420. Sawynok J (January 1986). "The therapeutic use of heroin: a review of the pharmacological literature". Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 64 (1): 1–6. doi: 10.1139/y86-001. PMID 2420426. Derks, Hans: History of the Opium Problem: The Assault on the East, ca. 1600–1950. Sinica Leidensia, 105. Leiden: Brill, 2012. ISSN 0169-9563. ISBN 978-90-04-22158-1 Heydari, M; Hashempur, M. H.; Zargaran, A (2013). "Medicinal aspects of opium as described in Avicenna's Canon of Medicine". Acta medico-historica Adriatica. 11 (1): 101–12. PMID 23883087.

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Association for Asian Studies. Southeast Conference (1979). Annals, Volumes 1–5. The Conference. p.51 . Retrieved April 29, 2011. Michot, Yahya. L’opium et le café. Traduction d’un texte arabe anonyme et exploration de l'opiophagie ottomane (Beirut: Albouraq, 2008) ISBN 978-2-84161-397-7Operational Medicine 2001 Field Medical Service School Student Handbook: Molle medical bag/surgical instrument set". December 7, 1999 . Retrieved June 27, 2007. William Muir (1875), The opium revenue: Sir William Muir's minute and other extracts from papers published by the Calcutta government; also extracts from parliamentary papers (1sted.), London: The Anglo-Oriental Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade, p.30, Wikidata Q19095804 Ballantyne, Jane C., and Jianren Mao. "Opioid Therapy For Chronic Pain". New England Journal of Medicine 349.20 (n.d.): 1943–1953. SocINDEX with Full Text. Web. November 3, 2011. Opium smoking began as a privilege of the elite and remained a great luxury into the early 19th century. However, by 1861, Wang Tao wrote that opium was used even by rich peasants, and even a small village without a rice store would have a shop where opium was sold. [47] Merlin, M. D. (September 2003). "Archaeological Evidence for the Tradition of Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World". Economic Botany. 57 (3): 295–323. doi: 10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0295:aeftto]2.0.co;2. ISSN 0013-0001. JSTOR 4256701. S2CID 30297486 . Retrieved May 31, 2022.

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Garzoni, Costantino. 1840 [1573]. "Relazione dell'impero Ottomano del senatore Costantino Garzoni stato all'ambascieria di Costantinopoli nel 1573". In Le relazioni degli ambasciatori veneti al Senato, serie III, volume I, ed. Eugenio Albèri. Firenze: Clio, p. 398 Morimoto, Satoshi; Kazunari Suemori; Jun Moriwaki; Futoshi Taura; Hiroyuki Tanaka; Mariko Aso; Masakazu Tanaka; Hiroshi Suemune; Yasuyuki Shimohigashi; Yukihiro Shoyama; etal. (October 12, 2001). "Morphine Metabolism in the Opium Poppy and Its Possible Physiological Function". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 276 (41): 38179–38184. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M107105200. PMID 11498543.Zhang, Sarah (January 9, 2019). "Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth". The Atlantic . Retrieved May 10, 2020.

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a b c d Philip Robson (1999). Forbidden Drugs. Oxford University Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-19-262955-5. Fueled in part by the 1729 ban on madak, which at first effectively exempted pure opium as a potentially medicinal product, the smoking of pure opium became more popular in the 18th century. In 1736, the smoking of pure opium was described by Huang Shujing, involving a pipe made from bamboo rimmed with silver, stuffed with palm slices and hair, fed by a clay bowl in which a globule of molten opium was held over the flame of an oil lamp. This elaborate procedure, requiring the maintenance of pots of opium at just the right temperature for a globule to be scooped up with a needle-like skewer for smoking, formed the basis of a craft of "paste-scooping" by which servant girls could become prostitutes as the opportunity arose. [47] Chinese diaspora in the West [ edit ] Stephen Harding; Lee Ann Olivier & Olivera Jokic. "Victorians' Secret: Victorian Substance Abuse". Archived from the original on May 31, 2007 . Retrieved May 2, 2007. a b c M J Brownstein (June 15, 1993). "A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (12): 5391–5393. Bibcode: 1993PNAS...90.5391B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.12.5391. PMC 46725. PMID 8390660.The Persian physician Abū ‘Alī al-Husayn ibn Sina ("Avicenna") described opium as the most powerful of the stupefacients, in comparison to mandrake and other highly effective herbs, in The Canon of Medicine. The text lists medicinal effects of opium, such as analgesia, hypnosis, antitussive effects, gastrointestinal effects, cognitive effects, respiratory depression, neuromuscular disturbances, and sexual dysfunction. It also refers to opium's potential as a poison. Avicenna describes several methods of delivery and recommendations for doses of the drug. [24] This classic text was translated into Latin in 1175 and later into many other languages and remained authoritative until the 19th century. [25] Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu used opium in the 14th-century Ottoman Empire to treat migraine headaches, sciatica, and other painful ailments. [26] Reintroduction to Western medicine [ edit ] Latin translation of Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, 1483 Latimer, Dean, and Jeff Goldberg with an Introduction by William Burroughs. Flowers in the Blood: The Story of Opium. New York: Franklin Watts, 1981 Dioscorides,Introduction to The Herbal of Dioscorides the Greek Poppy crop from the Malwa in India (probably Papaver somniferum var. album [1]) Eventually, laudanum became readily available and extensively used by the 18th century in Europe, especially England. [33] Compared to other chemicals available to 18th century regular physicians, opium was a benign alternative to arsenic, mercury, or emetics, and it was remarkably successful in alleviating a wide range of ailments. Due to the constipation often produced by the consumption of opium, it was one of the most effective treatments for cholera, dysentery, and diarrhea. As a cough suppressant, opium was used to treat bronchitis, tuberculosis, and other respiratory illnesses. Opium was additionally prescribed for rheumatism and insomnia. [34] Medical textbooks even recommended its use by people in good health, to "optimize the internal equilibrium of the human body". [19] In 1909, the International Opium Commission was founded, and by 1914, 34 nations had agreed that the production and importation of opium should be diminished. In 1924, 62 nations participated in a meeting of the commission. Subsequently, this role passed to the League of Nations, and all signatory nations agreed to prohibit the import, sale, distribution, export, and use of all narcotic drugs, except for medical and scientific purposes. This role was later taken up by the International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations under Article 23 of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and subsequently under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Opium-producing nations are required to designate a government agency to take physical possession of licit opium crops as soon as possible after harvest and conduct all wholesaling and exporting through that agency. [1] Indochina tax [ edit ] Two men smoked opium in Tonkin in 1923