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Some authors, like M Ikram Rabbani, even blame Akbar’s secularism for the division of Hindus and Muslims, claiming it to be the reason behind the origin of the two-nation theory. Shivaji in the court of Aurangzeb by M. V. Dhurandhar (Wikimedia Commons)
The Puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase designed to produce contrition for sin through introspection, Bible study and listening to preaching. This was followed by humiliation, when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness. [52] It was after reaching this point—the realization that salvation was possible only because of divine mercy—that the person would experience justification, when the righteousness of Christ is imputed to the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated. For some Puritans, this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as being born again. [55] The recorded secularism of Akbar is rooted in his policy of sulh-i-kul or universal harmony. First articulated by the mystic thinker Sufi Ibn Arabi in the 12 th century, the concept posits that kings are bound to a certain social contract with their subjects which permits the practice of any faith, given that all religions are a pathway to God. Miller, Neil (13 October 2010). Banned in Boston: The Watch and Ward Society's Crusade against Books, Burlesque, and the Social Evil. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-5113-9 . Retrieved 26 January 2023.Miller 2008, p.296: "Congregationalists were theologically descended directly from the Puritans of England and consequently enjoyed pride of place as one of the oldest, most numerous, and most significant religious groups in the colonies." Dent, Arthur (1601). The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven. Belfast, North of Ireland Bk. [and] Tract Depository. Bremer, Francis J.; Webster, Tom, eds. (2006). "Savoy Assembly". Puritans and Puritanism in Europe and America: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp.533–534. ISBN 978-1576076781. Carpenter, John B. (Winter 2003). "New England's Puritan Century: Three Generations of Continuity in the City upon a Hill". Fides et Historia. The Conference on Faith and History. 35 (1): 41–58. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022 . Retrieved 26 May 2022.
Bremer, Francis J. Lay Empowerment and the Development of Puritanism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015. Puritan millennialism has been placed in the broader context of European Reformed beliefs about the millennium and interpretation of biblical prophecy, for which representative figures of the period were Johannes Piscator, Thomas Brightman, Joseph Mede, Johannes Heinrich Alsted, and John Amos Comenius. [92] Like most English Protestants of the time, Puritans based their eschatological views on an historicist interpretation of the Book of Revelation and the Book of Daniel. Protestant theologians identified the sequential phases the world must pass through before the Last Judgment could occur and tended to place their own time period near the end. It was expected that tribulation and persecution would increase but eventually the church's enemies—the Antichrist (identified with the Roman Catholic Church) and the Ottoman Empire—would be defeated. [93] Based on Revelation 20, it was believed that a thousand-year period (the millennium) would occur, during which the saints would rule with Christ on earth. [94] McCullough, David (22 May 2001). John Adams. New York: Simon & Schuster. p.223. ISBN 0-684-81363-7.Barnett, James Harwood (1984). The American Christmas: A Study in National Culture. Ayer Publishing. ISBN 0-405-07671-1.
Anti-Catholic sentiment appeared in New England with the first Pilgrim and Puritan settlers. [146] In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. [147] Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offense carried a death penalty. [148] Historiography [ edit ] Second version of The Puritan, a late 19th-century sculpture by Augustus Saint-GaudensThis theological view did not in any way endear the Puritans to James I or most members of the Anglican Church. Moderate Puritans continued to serve in the Church in the early years of James I's reign, but the fundamentalists formed their own congregations and met secretly, especially the so-called separatists who believed one needed to leave the Anglican Church completely to save one's soul. These secret meetings were illegal, and when a congregation was discovered, its members were persecuted. The Great Migration Burns, Eric (2006). Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism. New York: Public Affairs. pp.6–7. ISBN 978-1-58648-334-0. Neil, Daniel (1844). The History of the Puritans, Or Protestant Noncomformists: From the Reformation in 1517, to the Revolution in 1688; Comprising an Account of Their Principles; Their Attempts for a Farther Reformation in the Church; Their Sufferings; and the Lives and Characters of Their Most Considerable Divines. Vol.1. p.246. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016 – via Google Books.
Bounds were not set on enjoying sexuality within the bounds of marriage, as a gift from God. [132] Spouses were disciplined if they did not perform their sexual marital duties, in accordance with 1 Corinthians 7 and other biblical passages. Women and men were equally expected to fulfill marital responsibilities. [133] Women and men could file for divorce based on this issue alone. In Massachusetts colony, which had some of the most liberal colonial divorce laws, one out of every six divorce petitions was filed on the basis of male impotence. [134] Puritans publicly punished drunkenness and sexual relations outside marriage. [107] Couples who had sex during their engagement were fined and publicly humiliated. [107] Men, and a handful of women, who engaged in homosexual behavior, were seen as especially sinful, with some executed. [107] While the practice of execution was also infrequently used for rape and adultery, homosexuality was actually seen as a worse sin. [135] Passages from the Old Testament, including Lev 20:13., were thought to support the disgust for homosexuality and efforts to purge society of it. New Haven code stated "If any man lyeth with mankinde, as a man lyeth with a woman, both of them have committed abomination, they shall surely be put to death" [136] and in 1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted a set of laws that included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery. [137] Prominent authors such as Thomas Cobbert, Samual Danforth and Cotton Mather wrote pieces condemning homosexuality. [135] Mather argued that the passage "Overcome the Devil when he tempts you to the youthful sin of Uncleanness" was referring "probably to the young men of Sodom". [138] Religious toleration [ edit ] Robert Woodford was an English lawyer, largely based at Northampton and London. His diary for the period 1637–1641 records in detail the outlook of an educated Puritan.In Pakistani textbooks, Akbar, not Aurangzeb is accused of fermenting the downfall of the Mughal empire. Ali in his article writes that the contrast between the two “appears a conflict between evil and good, and Akbar suffers a humiliating defeat in the hands of textbook historians”.
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