Another study examined 12 pairs of identical twins that overfed (~840 kcals extra daily) over 100days [ 15]. The average gain in fat mass and FFM were 5.4kg and 2.7kg. In comparison, our study showed an average loss of fat mass (0.3kg normal group, 1.6kg high protein group) and gain in FFM (1.5kg for both the normal and high protein group). The authors of the identical twin overfeeding study noted that no single variable was a great predictor of body composition changes [ 15]. The identical twin overfeeding study did not have an exercise component and did not use trained subjects. Thus, its relevance is questionable in athletic populations that purposefully engage in overfeeding. Database searches were performed from earliest record to July 2013 using the terms protein, and intake, or diet, and weight, or train, or restrict, or energy, or strength, and athlete. Studies (N = 6) needed to use adult (≥ 18 yrs), energy-restricted, resistance-trained (> 6 months) humans of lower body fat (males ≤ 23% and females ≤ 35%) performing resistance training. Protein intake, fat free mass (FFM) and body fat had to be reported. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2020–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Ninth Edition. December 2020. Milk proteins have undergone extensive research related to their potential roles in augmenting adaptations from exercise training [ 86, 93]. For example, consuming milk following exercise has been demonstrated to accelerate recovery from muscle damaging exercise [ 162], increase glycogen replenishment [ 163], improve hydration status [ 162, 164], and improve protein balance to favor synthesis [ 86, 93], ultimately resulting in increased gains in both neuromuscular strength and skeletal muscle hypertrophy [ 93]. Moreover, milk protein contains the highest score on the PDCAAS rating system, and in general contains the greatest density of leucine [ 156]. Milk can be fractionated into two protein classes, casein and whey. In a systematic review, the results of clinical studies on the influence of a single protein or amino acid administration on muscle protein synthesis in younger and older people are summarized (middle-aged persons ≥55 vs. 18-35 years). Eight of 21 studies showed significant differences between younger and older adults regarding the effects of protein or amino acid administration on muscle protein synthesis. The other 13 studies did not indicate a difference between younger and older subjects [ 34].

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Acute protein doses should strive to contain 700–3000 mg of leucine and/or a higher relative leucine content, in addition to a balanced array of the essential amino acids (EAAs).

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Co-ingestion of additional dietary ingredients that may favorably impact strength (e.g. creatine, HMB) Athletes should consider focusing on whole food sources of protein that contain all of the EAAs (i.e., it is the EAAs that are required to stimulate MPS). In addition to these studies that spanned one to three weeks, several acute-response (single feeding and exercise sessions) studies exist, during which protein was added to a carbohydrate beverage prior to or during endurance exercise. Similarly, most of these interventions also reported no added improvements in endurance performance when protein was added to a carbohydrate beverage as compared to carbohydrate alone [ 6, 7, 8, 9]. An important research design note, however, is that those studies which reported improvements in endurance performance when protein was added to a carbohydrate beverage before and during exercise all used a time-to-exhaustion test [ 10, 11, 12]. When specifically interested in performance outcomes, a time trial is preferred as it better mimics competition and pacing demands. Adding protein during or after an intensive bout of endurance exercise may suppress the rise in plasma proteins linked to myofibrillar damage and reduce feelings of muscle soreness. Two meta-analyses of nitrogen balance studies [ 17, 26] compared the nitrogen requirement of younger (≤55 or < 60 years) and older people (> 55 or ≥60 years). Differences in nitrogen requirement were reported but did not reach statistic significance. The authors calculated an average requirement of 0.66 g protein/kg body weight per day in metabolically healthy older as well as in younger and middle-aged adults. Two nitrogen balance studies in older persons (55-70 years [ 27], 77-99 years [ 28]) not considered in the meta-analyses due to methodological limitations (no younger control group) indicate that the protein requirement may be slightly higher in older adults.

Taking each of these variables into consideration, the effects of supplemental protein consumption has on maximal strength enhancement are varied, with a majority of the investigations reporting no benefit [ 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25] and a few reporting improvements in maximal strength [ 26, 27, 28, 29]. With limited exceptions [ 16, 18, 23, 27], most of the studies utilized young, healthy, untrained males as participants. In one investigation examining college football athletes supplementing with a proprietary milk protein supplement (two servings of 42g per day) for 12weeks, a 14.5% increase in maximal squat strength was observed compared to a 6.9% increase in the placebo group [ 28]. These differences were statistically significant. When females were the only sex investigated, the outcomes consistently indicated that supplemental protein does not appear to enhance maximal strength at magnitudes that reach statistical significance. Hida et al. [ 30] reported that females supplementing with 15g of egg white protein (which raised daily protein intake to 1.23g of protein/kg body weight/day) experienced no improvements in maximal upper and lower body strength as compared to a carbohydrate placebo (ingesting one gram of protein/kg body weight/day) over an 8-week period. An important note for this study is that 15g of egg protein is considered by many to be a sub-optimal dose [ 31]. However, others have advocated that the total daily intake of protein might be as important or more important [ 32]. In another study, Josse et al. [ 33] reported that non-resistance trained females supplementing with one liter of skimmed bovine milk (providing 36g of protein) after resistance exercise improved maximal strength in seven of nine measures as compared to a carbohydrate placebo group, but only the improvements to maximal bench press strength attained statistical significance compared to the placebo. In contrast, Taylor and colleagues [ 34] reported that pre- and post-exercise whey protein ingestion significantly increased maximal upper-body strength (+4.9kg bench press one repetition maximum) in comparison to changes seen when a maltodextrin placebo (+2.3kg) was ingested in a group of female collegiate basketball players over an 8-week period. Many sports nutritionists endorse 2.0 gm/kg/day as an upper ceiling of protein intake for athletes. Lower amounts would be sufficient for moderate- or low-intensity training. Even higher amounts (~70g) appear to be necessary to promote attenuation of muscle protein breakdown.

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Caloric restriction occurs when athletes attempt to reduce body fat or make weight. There is evidence that protein needs increase when athletes restrict calories or have low body fat. Helms ER, Zinn C, Rowlands DS, Brown SR. Helms ER, et al. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2014 Apr;24(2):127-38. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2013-0054. Epub 2013 Oct 2. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2014. PMID: 24092765 Review. A review by Bosse and Dixon [ 84] critically summarized the available literature on protein supplementation during resistance exercise and hypothesized that protein intake may need to increase by as much as 59% above baseline levels for significant changes in fat-free mass to occur. Finally, it should be noted that for many athletes, consuming a post- or pre-workout protein-containing meal represents a feeding opportunity with little downside, since there is no benefit from not consuming protein pre- and/or post-exercise. In other words, not consuming protein-containing foods/supplements post-exercise is a strategy that provides no benefit whatsoever. Thus, the most practical recommendation is to have athletes consume a meal during the post-workout (or pre-workout) time period since it may either help or have a neutral effect.

There are relatively few investigations on the effects of protein supplementation on endurance performance. subject performed 3 of these) – standing barbell curls, standing EZ bar curl, concentration curls, preacher curls, hammer curls The current RDA for protein is 0.8g/kg/day with multiple lines of evidence indicating this value is not an appropriate amount for a training athlete to meet their daily needs. Filtration methods differ, and there are both benefits and disadvantages to each. The two most popular methods of filtration of a given protein are the use of ion exchange and micro/ultrafiltration methods. Ion exchange exposes a given protein source, such as whey, to hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide, thereby producing an electric charge on the proteins that can be used to separate them from lactose and fat [ 200]. The advantage of this method is that it is relatively cheap and produces the highest protein concentration [ 200]. The disadvantage is that ion exchange filtration typically denatures some of the valuable immune-boosting, anti-carcinogenic peptides found in whey [ 200]. Cross-flow microfiltration, and ultra-micro filtration are based on the premise that the molecular weight of whey protein is greater than lactose, and use 1 and 0.25-μm ceramic membranes, respectively, to separate the two. As a result, whey protein is trapped in the membranes but the lactose and other components pass through. The advantage is that these processes do not denature valuable proteins and peptides found in whey, so the protein itself is de

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Research has shown that significant differences in skeletal muscle mass and body composition between older men who resistance train and either consume meat-based or lactoovovegetarian diet [ 147]. Over a 12-week period, whole-body density, fat-free mass, and whole-body muscle mass (as measured by urinary creatinine excretion) increased in the meat-sourced diet group but decreased in the lactoovovegetarian diet group. These results indicate that not only do meat-based diets increase fat-free mass, but also they may specifically increase muscle mass, thus supporting the many benefits of meat-based diets. A diet high in meat protein in older adults may provide an important resource in reducing the risk of sarcopenia. Hydration status is an important variable that has garnered increased attention because of its impact on body composition assessment. Work by Utter et al. has shown that several methods (e.g., air displacement plethysmography [Bod Pod], hydrostatic weighing and skinfolds) showed a significant decrease in FFM from the hydrated to the dehydrated state [ 13]. We were unable to measure hydration status; however, we did have participants follow identical pre- and post-testing conditions. In this respect, it is possible that hydration status may have been a contributing factor to the variability we are reporting with our body composition data. Nevertheless, a prudent step for future studies is to determine hydration status prior to body composition assessment. Daily intakes of 1.4 to 2.0g/kg/day operate as a minimum recommended amount while greater amounts may be needed for people attempting to restrict energy intake while maintaining fat-free mass. Meat-based diets have been shown to include additional overall health benefits. Some studies have found that meat, as a protein source, is associated with higher serum levels of IGF-1 [ 189], which in turn is related to increased bone mineralization and fewer fractures [ 190]. Meat vs. plant based proteins: Is one better than the other? Two prospective cohort studies showed a lower incidence of frailty or a reduced risk of frailty, respectively, at higher compared with lower protein intake over a period of about 3 years (quartile 1: men 31.6-82.9 g/day, women 26.9-68.0 g/day, quartile 4: men 115.8-218.4 g/day, women 95.7-181.3 g/day, age of the subjects: ≥60 years [ 51]; 1.2 vs. 1.0 g/kg body weight/day, age of the subjects: 65-79 years [ 52]).

Bronzato S, Durante A. A contemporary review of the relationship between red meat consumption and cardiovascular risk. Int J Prev Med. 2017;8:40. doi:10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_206_16 A higher protein intake compared with a lower protein intake in older adults (1.2 vs. ≥0.8 g/kg body weight/day, age of the subjects: 65-72 years [ 47]; 1.6 vs. 0.8 g/kg body weight/day, age of the subjects: 75 ± 3 years [ 48]; 1.3 vs. 0.9 g/kg body weight/day, age of the subjects: 67-84 years [ 49]; 1.2 vs. 0.8 g/kg body weight/day, age of the subjects: 70-79 years [ 50]) was also associated with greater fat-free mass or muscle mass, respectively, and partially with a lower loss [ 50] or even an increase [ 47, 48] of fat-free mass, body cell mass or muscle mass, respectively, over a period of several years. Data from the NuAge study showed a significant difference in men in fat-free body mass between the quartiles of protein intake at baseline (quartile 1: 0.86 g/kg body weight/day, quartile 4: 1.29 g/kg body weight/day, age of the subjects: 67-84 years) but no effect of protein intake on the loss of fat-free mass over 2 years. A cross-sectional study did not show any difference in muscle mass in subjects with higher protein intake compared with subjects with lower protein intake (≥1.2 vs. 0.8-1.19 g/kg body weight/day, age of the subjects: 50-75 years) [ 46]. It is possible that in the current investigation, changes in AEE and perhaps non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT) might account in part for the greater changes in body composition in the high protein diet group [ 17, 18]. According to Levine et al., NEAT can vary substantially between individuals by as much as 2000 kcals daily [ 18]. Obese individuals tend to be seated more than lean individuals up to 2.5h daily. That could represent an additional 350 kcals expended per day. Thus, it is possible that in the individuals in which NEAT increased the most during overfeeding, they were more likely to lose fat mass. And one could speculate that the more advanced training status of the high protein group might lend itself to greater NEAT.